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Index:Plant indicators the relation of plant communities to process and practice.djvu

Title Plant Indicators: the Relation of Plant Communities to Process and Practice
Author Frederic Edward Clements
Year 1920
Publisher Carnegie Institution of Washington
Location Washington, D.C.
Source djvu
Progress To be proofread
Transclusion Index not transcluded or unreviewed
OCLC 1050786583
DOI 10.5962/bhl.title.28569
Pages (key to Page Status)
- - - - - - I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIV XV XVI XVII 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 - - - - - -

Concept and History

The practical aspect 3
The scientific aspect 3

Historical

Agricultural Indicators

Hilgard, 1860 5
Chamberlin, 1877 5
Merriam, 1898 6
Hilgard, 1906 8
Clements, 1910 9
Shantz, 1911 10
Kearney, Briggs, Shantz, McLane, and Piemeisel, 1914 11
Shantz and Piemeisel, 1917 12
Shantz and Aldous, 1917 13
Weaver, 1919 13

Forest Indicators

Cajander, 1909 14
Clements, 1910 14
Pearson. 1913-1914 15
Zon, 1915 16
Hole and Singh, 1916 16
Korstian, 1917 17

Grazing Indicators

Smith, 1899 19
Bentley. 1902 20
Griffiths, 1901, 1904, 1907, 1910, 1915.... 21
Sampson, 1908, 1909, 1913, 1914 22
Jardine, 1908, 1909, 1910, 1913 23
Wooton, 1915, 1916 23
Jardine and Hurtt. 1917 24
Jardine and Anderson, 1919 24
Sarvis, 1919 25

Chresard and Water Requirement Studies

Significance 26
The chresard 26
Gain, 1895 26
Kihlmann, 1890 27
Briggs and Shantz, 1912 27
The water requirement 28

Concept

General 28
Animals as indicators 29
Plant and community 29
Sequences 30
Direct and indirect sequences 31
Direction of indication 32
Scope 32
Materials 33
Basing studies 34

Bases and Criteria

Bases and Methods of Determination

Fundamental relations 35

The Physical Basis

Direct and indirect factors 36
Controlling and limiting factors 36
Climatic and edaphic factors 37
Climates and habitats 38
Variation of climate and habitat 39
Inversion of factors 40
Measurement of habitats 42

The Physiological Basis

Kinds of response 43
Effect of habit 43
Individuality in response 44
Effect of extreme conditions 44
Phytometers 46

The Associational Basis

Nature of association 47
Dominants 47
Equivalence of dominants 48
Absence of dominants 49
Subdominants 50
Secondary species 51
Plant and animal association 51

The Successional Basis

Scope 51
Sequence of indicators 52
Major successions as indicators 53

The Experimental Basis

Nature 53
Essentials 54

Indicator Criteria

Nature and kinds of criteria 55
Species and genera 65

Life-Forms.

History 57
Pound and Clements, 1898-1900 57
Raunkiaer, 1905 58
Warming. 1908 69
Drude. 1913 60
Comparison of the systems 62
Vegetation-forms 62
Indicator significance of vegetation-forms 63

Habitat-Forms

Concept and history 64
Warming's system 64
Modifications of Warming's system 65
Indicator value 66
Ecads 67

Growth-Forms

Nature 68
Kinds 69
Indicator relations 69
Standard plants for growth correlations 70
Competition-forms 71

Communities as Indicators

Value 72
Kinds of communities 72
Community structures 73
Alternes 73
Layers 74
Aspects 75

Kinds of Indicators

Basis of distinction 76

Factor Indicators

Basis and kinds 76
Quantitative sequences 77
Climatic and edaphic indicators 77
Water indicators 78
Light indicators 79
Temperature indicators 81
Indicators of solutes 83
Saline indicators 83
Lime indicators 84
Aeration indicators 85
Indicators of factor-complexes 88
Soil indicators 88
Slope-exposure indicators 88
Altitude indicators 89
Organism indicators 90

Process Indicators

Nature 91
Kinds 91
Fire indicators 92
Lumbering indicators 93
Cultivation indicators 93
Grazing indicators 94
Indicators of irrigation and drainage 95
Construction indicators 96
Physiographic indicators 97
Climatic indicators 97

Practice Indicators

Nature and kinds 98

Paleic Indicators

Paleo-ecology 99
Nature of paleic indicators 100
Kinds 101
Paleic indicators of climates and cycles 103
Paleic indicators of succession 103
Plant indicators of animals 104
Animal indicators of plants 104

Climax Formations Of Western North America

Nature 105
Tests of a climax 105
Structure and development 106
Societies 107
Names of climax communities 109
Seral communities 109
Indicator significance of climax formations 111
Significance of succession 111
Indicator value of disturbed areas 112
Summary of the climax formations 113

The Grassland Climax

Stipa-Bouteloua Formation

General relations 114
Unity of the grassland 116
Correlation with climate 116
Use of weather records 116
Relationship of associations 118
Floristic relations 119
Ecological relations 120
Subdominants 120
Developmental relations 121

The True Prairie

Stipa-Koeleria Association

Extent 121
Factor relations 123
Sequence of dominants 123

Societies

Nature 125
Control of dominants 125
Relation to consociation 126
Origin 126
Mixed societies 127
Aspects 127
Zones and alternes 128
Studies of prairie societies 129

Clans

Vernal clans 131
Estival clans 131
Serotinal clans 131

The Subclimax Prairie

Andropogon Associes

Nature 131
Range 132
Factor relations 133
Sequence 133
Grouping 134

Societies and Clans

The Mixed Prairie

Stipa-Borteloua Association

Nature 135
Effect of grazing and climatic cycles 135
Range 136
Grouping 137
Sequence of dominants 138

Societies of the Mixed Prairie

Prevernal societies 139
Vernal societies 139
Estival societies 139
Serotinal societies 139

The Short-Grass Plains

Bulbilis-Bouteloua Association

Nature 139
Range 140
Grouping of dominants 141
Factor relations 142
Sequence of dominants 142

Societies

Prevernal societies 143
Vernal societies 143
Estival societies 143
Serotinal societies 144

Clans

Prevernal clans 144
Vernal clans 144
Estival clans 144
Serotinal clans 144

The Desert Plains

Aristida-Bouteloua Association

Nature 144
Range 145
Rank of dominants 146
Grouping of dominants 146
Sequence of dominants 147

Societies

Vernal societies 148
Estival societies 148
Serotinal societies 149

Clans

The Bunch-Grass Prairie

Agropyrum-Stipa Association

Nature 149
Range 149
Factor relations and sequence 151

Societies

Prevernal societies 152
Vernal societies 152
Estival societies 152
Serotinal societies 152

Clans

Prevernal clans 152
Vernal clans 152
Estival clans 152
Serotinal clans 152

The Sagebrush Climax

Atriplex-Artemisia Formation

Nature 152
Unity of the formation 153
Range 154
Subclimax sagebrush 155
Associations 156

The Basin Sagebrush

Atriplex-Artemisia Association

Range 156
Rank and grouping 157
Correlations 158
Successional sequence 159

Societies

Grass communities appearing as societies 160
Vernal societies 160
Estival societies 160
Serotinal societies 160

The Coastal Sagebrush

Salvia-Artemisia Association

Range 160

The Desert Scrub Climax

Larrea-Prosopis Formation

Nature 162
Range 163
Unity of the formation 163
Structure of the formation 165

Summary of Dominants

Associations 166
Relation to other formations 167

The Eastern Desert Scrub

Larrea-Flourensia Association

Correlations and sequence 168

Societies

The Western Desert Scrub

Larrea-Franseria Association

Nature 170
Extent 171
Structure 172
Groupings 172
Factor relations 173
Successional relations 174
Root relations 176

Societies and Clans

The Chaparrel Climax

Quercus-Ceanothus Formation

Nature 177
Unity of the chaparral formation 178
Climatic relations 178
Origin and succession 179
Range and extent 180
Structure of the formation 181
Grouping of dominants 181
Associations 183

The Petran Chaparral

Cercocarpus-Quercus Assoeiaiion

Nature and extent 183
Contacts 184
Groupings 185
Equivalence of dominants 186

Societies

Vernal societies 187
Estival societies 187
Serotinal societies 187

The Subclimax Chapparral

Rhus-Quercus Associes.

Nature 187
Extent and contacts 188
Groupings 189
Relations of the dominants 189

Societies

The Coastal Chapparal

Adenostoma-Ceanothus Association

Nature and extent 190
Groupings 191
Factor and seral relations 192

Societies

Prevernal societies 193
Vernal societies 193
Estival societies 193

The Woodland Climax

Pinus-Juniperus Formation

Nature 193
Range and extent 194
Unity of the formation 195
Structure of the formation 196
Contacts 197

The Pinon-Cedar Woodland

Pinus-Juniperus Association

Nature and extent 197

Societies

Shade societies 199

The Oak-Cedar Woodland

Quercus-Juniperus Aasociation

Nature and extent 200
Factor relations 201

Societies

Shade societies 202

The Pine-Oak Woodland

Pinus-Quercus Aaaociation

Nature and extent 202

The Montane Forest Climax

Pinus-Pseudotsuga Formation

Nature 205
Extent 205
Unity of the formation 205
Relationship and contacts 206
Associations 207

The Petran Montane Forest

Pinus-Pseudotsuga Aaaociation

Extent 207
Groupings 208
Factor relations 209
Seral relations 209

Societies and Clans

The Sierra Montane Forest

Pinus Association

Extent 211
Groupings 212
Factor and sersd relations 212

Societies

Shrubs 213
Herbs 214

The Coast Forest Climax

Thuja-Tsuga Formation

Nature 214
Extent 214
Unity 215
Relationship and contacts 215
Associations 216

The Cedar-Hemlock Forest

Thuja-Tsuga Association

Nature and extent 217
Groupings 217
Factor and seral relations 218

Societies

Shrubs 219
Herbs 219

The Larch-Pine Forest

Larix-Pinus Association

Nature and extent 219
Groupings 220
Factor and serai relations 220

Societies

The Subalpine Forest Climax

Picea-Abies Formation

Nature 222
Extent 222
Unity 222
Relationship and contacts 223
Associations 224

The Petran Subalpine Forest

Picea-Abies Association

Extent 224
Groupings 225
Factor and seral relations 225

Societies

The Sierran Subalpine Forest

Pinus-Tsuga Association

Extent 226
Groupings 227
Factor and serai relations 228

Societies

The Alpine Meadow Climax

Carex-Poa Formation

Nature 228
Extent 229
Unity 229
Relationship and contacts 230
Associations 231

The Petran Alpine Meadow

Carex-Poa Association

Extent 232
Dominants.
Groupings 232
Factor and seral relations 233

Societies

Vernal societies 234
Estival societies 234

The Sierran Alpine Meadow

Carex-Agrostis Association

Extent 234

Dominants

Groupings 235
Factor and seral relations 235

Societies

Agricultural Indicators

General relations 237

Land Classification

Nature 237
Relation to practices 238
Proposed bases of classification 238
The indicator method of land classification 240
Use of climax indicators 240
Soil indicators 241
Shantz's results 242

A System of Land Classification

Bases 245
Classification and use 245
Methods 246

Climatic Cycles

Nature 247
The 11-year cycle 247
Evidences 248
Periods of drought 250
Recurrence of drought periods 251
Significance of the sun-spot cycle 252
Prediction of drought periods 253
Utilization of cycles 254

Farming Indicators

Types of farming 255
Relation of types of farming to indicators 255
Edaphic indicators of types of farming 256

Crop Indicators

Nature and kinds 257
Climatic indicators of the types of crops 258
Climatic indicators of kinds of crops 259
Climatic indicators of varieties 259
Life zones and crop zones 260
Edaphic indicators of crops and methods 261
Indicators of native or ruderal forage crops 262

Agricultural Practice and Climatic Cycles

Cycles of production 262
The excess-deficit balance 264
Anticipation of cycles 266

Grazing Indicators

Kinds of grazing 270

Grazing Types

Kinds of grazing indicators 271
Significance of climax types 272
Formations as indicators 273
Associations as indicators 273
Consociations as indicators 274
Local grazing types 275
Savannah as an indicator 276
Kinds of savannah 278
Savannah in relation to fire and grazing 279
Significance of seral types 279
Prisere communities as indicators 280
Subsere communities as indicators 282
Fire indicators and grazing 283

Carrying Capacity

Nature and significance 284
Determining factors 284
Relation to communities and dominants 285
Nutrition content 286
Relation to climatic cycles 292
Relation to rodents 293
Relation to herd and management. 293
Measurement of carrying capacity 294
Present and potential carrying capacity 295

Overgrazing

Nature 295
Causes 297
Indicators of Overgrazing 297
Societies as indicators 298
Halfshrubs as indicators 299
Cacti as indicators 300
Shrubs as indicators 300
Annuals as indicators 301
Prairie and plains indicators 302
Desert plains indicators 302
Bunch-grass prairie indicators 303
Great Basin indicators 304
Overgrazing in the past 304
Succession and cycles 307
Relation of tall-grasses and short-grasses 308
Overgrazing cycles 309

Range Improvement

History 310
Prerequistes 311
Essential factors 312
Proper stocking 312
Rotation grazing 314
Rodent eradication 316
Eradication of poisonous plants 317
Eradication of weeds and cacti 319
Eradication of brush 320
Manipulation of the range 321
Plant introduction on the range 322
Prerequisites for seeding and planting 324
New investigations 326
Forage development 327
Water development 328
Herd management 329

Essentials of a Grazing Policy

A proper land system 330
Essentials 330
The Kent grazing bill 331
Classification and range surveys 334
Production cycles 334
Ranch management surveys 335

Forest Indicators

Nature 336
Kinds of indicators 336

Forest Types

Bases 337
Comparison of views 342
Forest sites 343
Succession as a basis 344
Significance 345

Climatic and Edaphic Indicators

Climatic indicators 345
Edaphic indicators 348
Water-content indicators 348
Light indicators 349
Site indicators 349
Growth as an indicator 360
Burn indicators 353
Grazing indicators 355
Cycle indicators 367

Planting Indicators

Kinds 357
Prerequisites for planting and sowing 358
Use of climatic cycles 359
Reforestation indicators 369
Afforestation indicators 362

Bibliography 364

==Index 375==
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