symbols, especially of those for 5, 6, 7, and 8. The symbols used by the Arabs can be traced back to the tenth century. We find material differences between those used by the Saracens in the East and those used in the West. But most surprising is the fact that the symbols of both the East and of the West Arabs deviate so extraordinarily from the Hindoo Devanagari numerals (= divine numerals) of to-day, and that they resemble much more closely the apices of the Roman writer Boethius. This strange similarity on the one hand, and dissimilarity on the other, is difficult to explain. The most plausible theory is the one of Woepcke: (1) that about the second century after Christ, before the zero had been invented, the Indian numerals were brought to Alexandria, whence they spread to Rome and also to West Africa; (2) that in the eighth century, after the notation in India had been already much modified and perfected by the invention of the zero, the Arabs at Bagdad got it from the Hindoos; (3) that the Arabs of the West borrowed the Columbus-egg, the zero, from those in the East, but retained the old forms of the nine numerals, if for no other reason, simply to be contrary to their political enemies of the East; (4) that the old forms were remembered by the West-Arabs to be of Indian origin, and were hence called Gubar-numerals (= dust-numerals, in memory of the Brahmin practice of reckoning on tablets strewn with dust or sand; (5) that, since the eighth century, the numerals in India underwent further changes, and assumed the greatly modified forms of the modern Devanagari-numerals.[3] This is rather a bold theory, but, whether true or not, it explains better than any other yet propounded, the relations between the apices, the Gubar, the East-Arabic, and Devanagari numerals.
It has been mentioned that in 772 the Indian Siddhanta was brought to Bagdad and there translated into Arabic. There
