THEOLOGY
595
THEOLOGY
Thomism were the Cardinals Celestine Sfondrato
(d. 1696) and Aguirre (d. 1699); the latter's work
"Theology of St. Anselm" in three volumes is replete
with deep thought. Among the Franciscans Claud-
ius Frassen (d. 16S0) issued his elegant "Scotus
academicus", a counterpart to the Thomistic theol-
ogy of Billuart. Of the Scotistic School we also
mention Gabriel Boyvin, ICrisper (d. 1721), and Kick
(d. 1769). Eusebius Amort (d. 1775), the foremost
theologian in Germany, also represented a better
type, combining sound conservatism with due regard
for modern demands. The Society of Jesus still
preserved something of its former vigour and activity.
Simmonet, Ulloa (d. about 1723), and Marin were the
authors of voluminous scholastic works. But now
the didactical and pedagogical interests began to
assert themselves, and called for numerous text-
books of theology. We mention Platel (d. 1681),
Antoine (d. 1743), Pichler (d. 1736), Sardagna (d.
1775), Erber, Monschein (d. 1769), and Gener.
But both as regards matter and form all these text-
books were surpassed by the "Theologia \\'ircfbur-
gensis", which the Jesuits of Wiirzburg ])ublishetl in
1766-71. In addition to the old religious orders,
we meet during this period the new school of Augus-
tinians, who based their theology on the system of
Gregory of Rimini rather than on that of ^gidius
of Rome. Because of the stress they laid on the
rigoristic element in St. Augustine's doctrine on
grace, they were for a time suspected of Baianism
and Jansenism, but were cleared of this suspicion by
Benedict XIV. To this school belonged the schol-
arly Lupus (d. 1681) at Louvain and Cardinal Noris
(d. 1704), distinguished for his subtle intellect. But
its best work on dogmatic theology came from the
pen of Lawrence Berti (d. 1766). His fellow-workers
in the same field were BellelH (d. 1742) and Bertieri.
The French Oratory, falling from its lofty eminence,
was buried in Jansenism, as the names of Quesnel,
Lebrun, and Juenin sufficiently indicate.
The Sorbonne of Paris, developing the germs of Jansenism and Gallicanism, ceased to keep abreast of the time. Abstracting, however, from this fact, theology owes works of great merit to men like Louis Habert (d. 171S), du Hamel (d. 1706), L'Herminier, Witasse (d. 1716). Creditable exceptions were Louis Abelly (d. 1691) and Martin Grandin, who distinguished themselves by their loyalty to the Church. The same encomium must be said of Honoratus Tournely (d. 1729), whose " Praelectiones dogmatics" are numbered among the best theological text-books. A staunch opponent of Jansenism, he would certainly have challenged Galhcanism, had not the law of the realm prevented him. For the rest, the Church depended almost exclusively on Italy in its scientific combat against the pernicious errors of the time. There had gathered a chosen band of scholars who courageously fought for the purity of the faith and the rights of the papacy. In the front rank against Jansenism stood the Jesuits Dominic Viva (d. 1726), La Fontaine (d. 1728), Alticozzi (d. 1777), and Faure (d. 1779). Gallicanism and Joscphinism were hard pressed by the theologians of the Society of Jesus, especiallv by Zaccaria (d. 1795), MuzzarelH (A. 1749), Bolgeni (d. 1811), Roncaglia, and others. The .Jesuits were ably seconded by the Dominicans Orsi (d. 1761) and Mamachi (d. 1792). Another champion in this struggle was Cardinal Gerdil (d. 1802). Partly to this epoch belongs the fruitful activity of St. Alphon- sus Liguori (d. 1787), whose popular rather than scientific writings energetically opposed the baneful spirit of the time.
(d) Fourth Epoch: Decay of Catholic Theology (1760-1840). — ^iany circumstances, both from with- in and from without, contributed towards the further decadence of theology which had already begun in
the preceding epoch. In France it was the still
powerful influence of Jansenism and Gallicanism,
in the German Emiiire the spread of Joscphinism
and Febronianism that sai)ped the vitality of ortho-
dox theology. The suppression of the Society of
Jesus by Clement XIV in 1773 deprived theology of
its ablest representatives. To these factors must be
added the paralyzing influence of the "Enhghten-
ment" which, rising through English Deism, was
swelled by French Encyclopedism and finally deluged
all European countries. The French Revolution
and the mihtary expeditions of Napoleon all through
Europe were not without evil consequences. The
false philosophy of the time (Kant, Schelling, Fichte,
Hegel, Cousin, Comte, etc.), by which even many
theologians were misled, engendered not only an
undisguised contempt for Scholasticism and even
for St. Thomas, but also fostered a shallow concep-
tion of Christianity, the supernatural character of
which was obscured by Rationalism. True, the spirit
of former centuries was still alive in Italy, but the
unfavourable circumstances of the times impeded
its growth and development. In France the Revolu-
tion and the continual campaigns paralyzed or stifled
all productive activity. De Lamennais (d. 1854),
the beginning of whose career had held out promises
of the highest order, turned from the truth and led
others astray. The Catholics of England groaned
under pohtical oppression and religious intolerance.
Spain had become barren. Germany suffered from
the mildew of "Enlightenment". No matter how
mildly one may judge the aberrations of Wessenberg
(1774-1860), Vicar-General of Constance, who had
absorbed the false ideas of his age, it is certain that
the movement begun by him marked a decadence in
matters both ecclesiastical and scientific. But the
poorer the productions of the theologians the greater
their pride. They despised the old theologians,
whom they could neither read nor understand.
Among the few works of a better sort were the manuals
of Wiest (1791), Klupfel (1789), Dobmayer (1807),
and Brenner (1826). The ex-Jesuit Benedict Stat-
tler (d. 1797) tried to apply to dogma the philosophy
of Christian Wolff, Zimmer (1802), even that of
Schelling. The only work which, joining soundness
with a loyal Catholic spirit, marked a return to the
old traditions of the School was the dogmatic theol-
ogy of Liebermann (d. 1844), who taught at Stras-
burg and Mainz; it appeared in the years 1819-26
and went through many editions. But even Lieber-
mann was not able to conceal his dislike for the
Scholastics. The renewed attempt of Hermes (d.
1831) of Bonn to treat Catholic theology in a Kantian
spirit was no less fatal than that of Giinther (d. 1803)
in Vienna, who sought to unravel the mysteries of
Christianity by means of a modern Gnosis and to
resolve them into purely natural truths. If positive
and speculative theology were ever to be regenerated,
it was by a return to the source of its vitality, the
glorious traditions of the past.
(e) Fifth Epoch: Restoration of Dogmatic Theology (1840-1900).— The reawakening of the Catholic life in the forties naturally brought with it a revival of Catholic theology. Germany especially, where the decline had gone farthest, showed signs of a remarkable regeneration and vigorous health. The external impulse was given by Joseph Gorrcs (d. 1848), the "loud shouter in the fray". When the Prussian Government imprisoned Archbishop von Droste-Vischering of Cologne on account of the stand he had taken in the question of mixed marriages, the fiery appeals of Gorres began to fill the hearts of the Catholics, even outside of Germany, with unwonted courage. The German theologians heard the call and once more applied themselves to the work which wa-s theirs. Dollinger (d. 1890) developed Church history, and Mohler advanced patrology and sym-
