Script, iii. 2; Jacobus Volaterranus, Diarium, ap. Muratari, Script. xxiii.; Schmarzow, Melozzo da Forli (1886); Steinmann, Sixtinische Capelle i. (1901); Schlecht, Andrea Zamometic i. (1893). Innocent VIII.—Infessura, op. cit.; Burchardi, Diarium i.–ii. ed. cit. (also for Alexander VI.); Burchardi, Diarium, ed. Thuasne, i. (1883). Julius II.— Brosch, Julius II. u. d. Kirchenstaat (1878); Geymüller, Entwürfe für St Peter (1875–1880); Schulte, Maximilian als Candidat für den päpstlichen Stuhl (1906). Leo X.—Hergenröther, Reg. Leonis X. (1884–1891); Jovius, Vita (1548); Koscoe, Leone X., ed. Bossi (1816); Janssen, Gesch. d. deutschen Volks i. 18–ii. 18 (1897); Schulte, Fugger in Rom (1904); Kalkoff, Luthers römischer Prozess (1906). Adrian VI.—Burmann, Adrianus VI. (1727). Clement VII.—Friedensburg, Nuntiaturberichte i. (1892); Ehses, Documente zur Geschichte der Ehescheidung Heinrichs VIII. (1893); Ehses, Cone, trident, iv. (1904); Fraikin, Nonciatures de France i. (1906). Paul III.—Friedensburg, Nuntiaturberichte ii. sqq. (1892–1908); Venetianische Depeschen vom Kaiserhof i. (1889); Ehses, Concil. trident. iv. (1904); Merkle, Concil. trident, diaria i.; Maurenbrecher, Karl V. (1865); de Leva, Carlo V. iii.–v. (1867 seq.); Pastor, Reunionsbestrebungen Karls V. (1879); Janssen, Deutsche Geschichte iii. 18. (1899). Julius III.—Massarelli, ap. Döllinger, Concil. v. Trient (1876); de Leva, Carlo V. v. (1890). Marcellus II.—Pollidorus, Vita (1744). Pius IV.—Pallavicini, Concilio di Trento (1656); Duruy, Cardinal Carafa (1888); Susta, Curie und Concil. i.–ii. (1904–1909); Steinherz, Nuntiaturberichte i. and iii. (1897–1903). Pius V.— Guglielmotti, Marcantonio Colonna (1862). Gregory XIII.—Theiner, Annales ecclesiastici (1856); Maffei, Annali (1746); Brosch, Kirchenstaat i. (1880); Nuntiaturberichte, ed. Hansen, and Schellhass, i. (1892); Steinhuber, Collegium germanicum i. 2–ii. 2 (1907); Duhr, Jesuiten in Deutschland i. (1907); Astrain, Comp. de Jesus de España (3 vols., 1902). Sixtus V.—Memorie autografe, ed. Cagnoni, Archivio d. Soc. Rom. (1882); Nuntiaturberichte, ed. Görresgesellschaft, i. seq. (1895); Balzani, in Cambridge Modern History; Hübner, Sixte-Quinte (1870). (L. v. P.)
Periods IV., V., VI. 1590 onwards.—In addition to the general works already mentioned, see M. Brosch, Geschichte des Kirchenstaates (Gotha, 1880–1882), utilizing Venetian archives; L. Ranke, History of the Papacy in the 16th and 17th centuries (1840 and frequently); A. R. Pennington, Epochs of the Papacy (London, 1881); F. Nippold, The Papacy in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1900); B. Labanca, Il Papato (Torino, 1905), with Italian bibliography; F. Nielsen, The History of the Papacy in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1906), the scholarly and fascinating work of a Danish Lutheran bishop; A. Galton, Church and State in France, 1300–1907 (London, 1907); E. Bourgeois and E. Clermont, Rome et Napoleon III. (Paris, 1907), exposing secret negotiations; A. Debidour, L'Église catholique et l'etat sous la troisième république (Paris, 1906–1909), valuable though strongly anti-clerical; R. de Cesare, Roma e lo stato del papa dal ritorno di Pio IX. (2 vols., Rome, 1907); in abridged translation. The Last Days of Papal Rome (Boston, 1909). (W. W. R.*)
PAPEETE, the capital of the Pacific island of Tahiti, and the
chief port and trading centre, and the seat of government of the
French establishments in Oceania. Pop. 4280 (2500 French).
The town, lying on the north-west coast of the island, on a
beautiful harbour entered by two passages through the protecting
reef, and backed by five mountains, is French in character
as far as concerns the richer quarters. It has a cathedral,
barracks and arsenal, government buildings and a botanical
garden. The Chinese quarter and the picturesque native
market contrast strongly with the European settlement. Of
the entrances to the harbour, which is of fair extent and depth,
that of Papeete has about seven fathoms depth; that of Taunoa
is shallower, though wider and more convenient.
PAPENBURG, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover, 27 m. by rail S. by W. of Emden, and near the right bank of the Ems, with which it is connected by a canal 3 m. long. Pop. (1905), 7673. It lies in the centre of extensive moors and in appearance
resembles a Dutch town. The industries include shipbuilding,
oil and glass mills, and manufactures of chemicals, cement,
nickel goods and machinery. It is a very prosperous port and
its trade, carried on mainly by water, is mostly in the agricultural
produce of the extensive moors and pasture lands which lie
around it. Papenburg was founded in 1675 and became a town
in 1860.
PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus), the general name for the substance commonly used for writing upon, or for wrapping things in. The origin and early history of paper as a writing material are involved in much obscurity. The art of making it from fibrous matter appears to have been practised by the
Chinese at a very distant period. Different writers have traced
it back to the 2nd century B.C. But, however remote its age may have been in eastern Asia, paper first became available for the rest of the world in the middle of the 8th century. In 751 the Arabs, who had occupied Samarkand early in the century, were attacked there by Chinese. The invasion was repelled by the Arab governor, who in the pursuit, it is related, captured certain prisoners who were skilled in paper-making and who imparted their knowledge to their new masters. Hence began the Arabian manufacture, which rapidly spread to all parts of the Arab dominions. The extent to which it was adopted for literary purposes is proved by the comparatively large number of early Arabic MSS. on paper which have been preserved dating from the 9th century.[1]
There has existed a not inconsiderable difficulty in regard to the material of which the Arab paper was composed. In Europe it has been referred to by old writers as charta bombycina, gossypina, cuttunea, xylina, damascena and serica. The last title seems to have been derived from its glossy and silken appearance; the title damascena merely points to its great central emporium, Damascus. But the other terms indicate an idea, which has been persistent, that the paper manufactured by the Arabs was composed of the wool from the cotton-plant, reduced to a pulp according to the method attributed to the Chinese; and it had been generally accepted that the distinction between Oriental paper and European paper lay in the fact that the former was a cotton-paper and the latter a rag-paper. But this theory has been disturbed by recent investigations, which have shown that the material of the Arab paper was itself substantially linen. It seems that the Arabs, and the skilled Persian workmen whom they employed, at once resorted to flax, which grows abundantly in Khorasan, as their principal material, afterwards also making use of rags, supplemented, as the demand grew, with any vegetable fibre that would serve; and that cotton, if used at all, was used very sparingly. Still there remain the old titles charta bombycina, &c., to be explained; and an ingenious solution has been oSered that the term charta bombycina, or χάρτης βομβύκινος, is an erroneous reading of charta bambycina, χάρτης βαμβύκινος, paper manufactured at the Syrian town of Bambyce or βαμβύκη, the Arab Mambidsch (Karabacek in Mittheilungen aus derii Sammlung der Papyrus Erzherzog Rainer, ii.–iii. 87, iv. 117). Without accepting this as an altogether sufficient explanation of so widely used a term as the medieval charta bombycina, and passing from the question of material to other differences, paper of Oriental manufacture in the middle ages was usually distinguished by its stout substance and glossy surface, and was devoid of water-marks, the employment of which became universal in the European factories. Besides the titles referred to above, paper also received the names of charta and papyrus, transferred to it from the Egyptian writing material manufactured from the papyrus plant (see Papyrus).
It was probably first brought into Greece through trade with Asia, and thence transmitted to neighbouring countries. Theophilus presbyter, writing in the 12th century (Schedula diversarum artium, i. 23), refers to it under the name of Greek parchment, pergamena graeca. There is a record of the use of
- ↑ A few of the earliest dated examples may be instanced. The Gharíbu ʽl-Haídth, a treatise on the rare and curious words in the sayings of Mahomet and his companions, written in the year 866, is probably one of the oldest paper MSS. in existence (Pal. Soc. Orient. Ser. pl. 6). It is preserved in the University Library of Leiden. A treatise by an Arabian physician on the nourishment of the different members of the body, of the year 960, is the oldest dated Arabic MS. on paper in the British Museum (Or. MS. 2600; Pal. Soc, pi. 96). The Bodleian Library possesses a MS. of the Díáwnu ʽl-Adab, a grammatical work of A.D. 974, of particular interest as having been written at Samarkand on paper presumably made at that seat of the first Arab manufacture (Pal. Soc. pl. 60). Other early examples are two MSS. at Paris, of the years 969 (Fonds arabe, suppl., 952) and 980 (Fonds arabe, 55); a volume oJ poems written at Baghdad.'A.D. 990, now at Leipzig, and the Gospel of St Luke, A.D. 993, in the Vatican Library (Pal. Soc., pls. 7, 21). In the great collection of Syriac MSS., which were obtained from the Nitrian desert in Egypt and are now in the British Museum, there are many volumes written on paper of the 10th century. The two oldest dated examples, however, are not earlier than A.D. 1075 and 1084.
