in the north-east the Danube, for 50 m., and the Timok for 23 m., constitute respectively the Rumanian and Bulgarian boundaries. Various mountain ranges mark the frontiers of Bosnia, on the west, Turkey on the south-west and south, and Bulgaria on the south and south-east. According to the survey carried out by the Servian general staff in 1884 the area of the country is 18,782 sq. m.
Mountains.—The mountain groups which rise confusedly over almost the whole surface of the land, fall into two main blocks, one on either side of the river Morava. On the east of this river, three vast ranges, the Transylvanian Alps, the Balkans and Rhodope, encroach upon Servian soil; while on the west there is a chaos of mountain masses, outliers of the Bosnian and Albanian highlands.
Rivers.—The chief navigable river of Servia is the Danube, which enters the country at Belgrade and pierces the Transylvanian Alps by way of the Kazan (i.e. “Cauldron”) Pass, near the famous Iron Gates (see Rumania). The Timok, which formed the Bulgarian frontier as long ago as the 9th century, springs in the western Balkans, or Stara Planina, and issues into the Danube, near Negotin, after a course of 70 m. Sooner or later, indeed, all the Servian rivers reach the Danube. The Save, which is also navigable, meets it at Belgrade, after being joined, at Racha, by the Drina, a Bosnian river, which rises on the Montenegrin border, 155 m. S. by W. Near Obrenovats the Kolubara also enters the Save, after traversing 45 m. from its source in the Sokolska Gora. Apart from frontier rivers, the most important stream is the Morava, which, rising on the western slopes of the Kara Dagh, a little beyond the Servian frontier, enters the country with a north-easterly course near the extreme S.E., and then turns N.N.W. and flows almost in a straight line through the heart of the kingdom to the Danube. Its total length is about 150 m. In the upper part of its course it is known as the Bulgarian Morava, and only after receiving the Servian Morava on the left is it known as the Morava simply or as the Great Morava. The Servian Morava is joined on the south by the Ibar, which comes from the Albanian Alps; the combined length of these rivers being about 130 m. The only other important tributary of the Great Morava is the Nishava, which it receives on the right, at Nish. This stream flows 68 m. W. by N. from its source among the foothills of the Stara Planina. The valleys of all these rivers, especially those of the Bulgarian and the Great Morava, and of the Nishava, contain considerable areas of level or low-lying country well suited for the growth of corn, and the low grounds along the Save and the Danube from the Drina to the Morava are also well adapted for agriculture, except the tract of fenland called the Machva, in the extreme north-west.
Geology.—The geological structure of Servia is varied. In the south and west the sedimentary rocks most largely developed are of ancient, pre-Carboniferous date, interrupted by considerable patches of granite, serpentine and other crystalline rocks. Beyond this belt there appear in the north-west Mesozoic limestones, such as occupy so extensive an area in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula generally, and the valleys opening in that quarter to the Drina have the same desolate aspect as belongs to these rocks in the rest of that region. In the extreme north-east the crystalline schists of the Carpathians extend to the south side of the Danube, and stretch parallel to the Morava in a band along its right bank. Elsewhere east of the Morava the prevail in rocks belong to the Cretaceous series, which enters Servia from Bulgaria. The Shumadia is mainly occupied by rocks of Tertiary age, with intervening patches of older strata; and the Rudnik Mountains are traversed by metalliferous veins of syenite.
Minerals.—Gold, silver, iron and lead were worked by the Romans, whose operations can still be traced in the Kostolats mine, near Pozharevats, and elsewhere. Even more ancient is the Avala mercury mine, near Belgrade. The heaps of débris which cover so many acres near Belgrade, on the Kopaonik foothills and in the Toplitsa valley bear witness to the importance of this industry in the past. During the later middle ages the Servian mines brought in a large revenue to the merchant princes of Ragusa. They prospered greatly during the 14th century, but Turkish rule put a stop to this industry after 1459; and the revival only began in 1835, under the patronage of Prince Milosh. The richest coal and lignite seams occur among the north-eastern mountains, generally near the Danube or Timok, and along the Morava. They are worked by the state, by Belgian companies and by private enterprise, the output in 1907 being valued at £121,000. Lead is principally raised in the Podrinye, especially at Krupan; and at Kuchayna, in the Pozharevats department, where zinc and small quantities of gold and silver are obtained. Antimony is mined at Zayechar. Copper and iron are worked by Belgians at Maydanpek, the chief mining centre east of the Morava. Nickel, mercury, manganese, graphite, marble, sulphur and oil shales are found in various regions, but the mineral resources of the country, as a whole, remain almost undeveloped.
The numerous mineral springs are even more neglected than the mines. Waters rich in iodine and sulphur occur in the Machva. About 1878 an unsuccessful attempt was made to convert Arandyelovats into a popular health-resort. The baths near Nish and Vranya are comparatively prosperous, while the beautiful surroundings attract visitors even from abroad.
Climate.—The climate of Servia is on the whole mild, though subject to the extremes characteristic of inland Eastern countries. In summer the temperature may rise as high as 106° F., while in winter it often sinks to 13° or even 20° below zero. The high-lying valleys in the south are colder than the rest of the country, not only on account of their greater elevation but also because of their being exposed to cold winds from the north and north-east.
Fauna.—The wild life of the Servian highlands is unusually varied. A few bears and wild boars and lynxes find shelter in the remoter forests, with many badgers, wolves, foxes, wildcats, martens and weasels. Otters are common along the rivers; chamois may very rarely be seen on the least accessible peaks; roe-deer, red-deer, squirrels and rabbits people the lower woodlands; and hares abound in the open. The beaver is extinct. Among land birds may be enumerated several varieties of eagle, vulture, falcon, owl, crow, jay, magpie, stork, quail, thrush, dove, &c. Pheasants are easily acclimatized; grouse and woodcock are indigenous on the uplands of the north; partridges, in all districts. Game laws were instituted in 1898. Innumerable aquatic birds haunt the banks of the Save, Danube and Drina, and the lower reaches of the Timok and Morava; among them being pelicans, cranes, grey and white herons, and many other kinds of waders, besides wild geese, ducks, rail and snipe. Edible frogs, tree-frogs, lizards, snakes, tortoises and scorpions are found in all parts. The principal fisheries are in the Danube and Save.
Forests.—About one tenth of the land is covered by forests, which give place, at an altitude of 5000 ft., to lichens and mosses. Little care was bestowed on forestry in the 19th century, apart from government supervision of the national and communal domains, a task usually delegated to the local mayor. Much of the finest timber was felled in the wars of 1876-1878 and of 1885, and the rights of grazing and wood-cutting also caused widespread destruction. The total forest area (official estimate, 1909) is about 3,800,000 acres, of which 1,625,000 belong to the communes and 1,375,000 to the state. Oaks and beeches predominate in the north; pines, often of gigantic size, among the fantastic white or grey rocks of the wild south-western ridges.
Agriculture.—Servian methods of farming remain in many respects primitive. Real progress was, however, achieved in the period 1890-1910, chiefly owing to improvements in agricultural education. Indian corn is the principal crop, for corn-cake forms the staple diet of the peasantry, while the grain is also used for feeding pigs, the heads for feeding cattle and the stubble for manure. The normal yield exceeds 5,000,000 bushels yearly, wheat coming next with a little less than 4,000,000. Flax, hemp and tobacco are also grown; hemp especially near Leskovats. The cultivation of sugar-beet, introduced in 1900, became an important industry, but the attempt to introduce cotton failed. The native tobacco plantations meet all the local demand, except for a small quantity of Turkish tobacco imported for the manufacture of special blends. The best Servian wines are those of Negotin and Semendria. Before the appearance of Phylloxera in 1885 wine was exported to France and Switzerland, but in 1882-1895 thousands of acres of vines were destroyed. Phylloxera was checked by the importation of American vines and the establishment of schools of viticulture. The creation of state vine-nurseries, stocked with American plants, was authorized by a law of 1908. Orchards are very extensive, and all the fruits of central Europe will thrive in Servia. The chief care is bestowed on plums, from which is distilled a mild spirit known as raki or rakiya. The favourite kind of raki is shlivovitsa (the sliwowitz of Austria), extracted solely from plums. There is a considerable trade in dried plums and plum marmalade. Bees are very generally kept, the honey being consumed in the country, the wax exported. Mulberries are grown on many farms for silkworms; sericulture is encouraged and taught by the state, and over 100,000 ℔ of cocoons are annually exported. Relatively to its population, Servia possesses a greater number of sheep (3,160,000 in 1905) and pigs (908,000 in 1905) than any country in Europe. Large herds of swine fatten, in summer and autumn, on the beech-mast and acorns of the forests, returning in winter to the lowlands. The Servian pig is pure white or black, but other breeds, notably the Berkshire and Yorkshire, are kept. Despite American competition and Austro-Hungarian tariffs the export of swine remains the principal branch of Servian commerce; Cheeses are made from the milk of both sheep and goats; but
