volutionary movement and himself became provisional President, being again duly reflected to the presidency some time after. This movement caused profound consternation in Peru, where people were beginning to assure themselves that the day of revolutions was over. Leguia inaugurated an ambitious scheme of internal reform, including the sanitation of 31 Peruvian cities, the reorganization of the army by a French Military Commission, the reorganization of the navy by an American Naval Com- mission, the reconstruction of the educational system by American experts, and huge irrigation works built under the direction of an American engineer, C. W. Sutton.
The most important reforms brought about by the Government of President Leguia were those calculated to modernize the country. President Pardo had inaugurated the practice of calling in foreign expert advice by inviting to Peru Dr. Henry Hanson, of the department of public health of the Panama Canal zone. Dr. Hanson was first invited to study the malarial fevers in the vicinity of Lima, but in July 1919 a serious yellow-fever epidemic broke out in Piura, the northernmost coast department of Peru, and he was sent thither with full authority to stamp it out. He continued in Peru as director of sanitation, and his work was much widened so as to include the general sanitation of Callao and the stamping-out of a bad epidemic of yellow fever which broke out in the department of Lambayeque in Jan. 1921. The late Gen. William Gorgas was also invited to Peru in 1919 in order to supervise extensive projected improvements to be carried out by the Foundation Company of New York. Those improvements were to include the resewering of Lima, the repaving of many chief streets of Lima and the sanitation of 31 Peruvian cities. There was much opposition to the contract made between the Peruvian Government and the Foundation Com- pany Congress, for example, being largely of the opinion that the contract was derogatory to the dignity and probity of Peru. This, together with the death of Gen. Gorgas, practically nullified the projected improvements.
A French Military Aviation Commission, headed by Gen. Vassal, came to Peru soon after President Leguia assumed office. It was intended to instruct officers of the Peruvian army in the use of various types of aeroplanes, and a school was founded at Maranga, near Lima. Proper financial support was not forthcoming, however, and in the middle of Feb. 1921 the French mission resigned, complaining that the situation in which they found themselves was intolerable. An American Naval Commission, headed by Capt. Frank B. Freyer, U.S.N., was called to Peru in July 1920 for the purpose of reorganizing the sea forces of Peru. In Jan. 1921 Capt. Freyer was made chief of staff with powers practically equal to those of the minister of marine.
Educational improvements under the general supervision of the minister of justice and instruction were undertaken. A large number of American educational experts, under the leadership of Dr. H. Erwin Bard, went to Peru, and Dr. Bard was made director-general of instruction (1921). The National Museum of Archaeology, likewise dependent upon the minister of justice and instruction, was also placed under an American expert from the Smithsonian Institution. (P. A. ME.)
PÉTAIN, HENRI PHILIPPE BENONI OMER JOSEPH (1856-
), French soldier, was born on May 24 1856. He was commissioned from St. Cyr 1878, passed in due course through the Ecole de Guerre, filled various staff appointments, including that of instructor at the Ecole de Guerre, and was promoted colonel in 1910. At the outbreak of the World War he was
commanding an infantry regiment, but he was immediately
given a brigade and then a division, and he acquitted himself
so well during the opening weeks of the struggle that he was
advanced to the command of an army corps in Artois in Oct.
1914. He greatly distinguished himself on the occasion of the
French offensive near Arras in May 1915, where his corps com-
pletely broke through the German position, though exploitation
proved to be impossible for want of reserves. Soon afterwards
he was given command of the II. Army. When preparations
were being made in the summer for the contemplated offensive
in Champagne, he was called upon to aid Gen. Castelnau in
framing the plans and in carrying them out. Then, when the
Germans in the following Feb. were gaining ground very rapidly
before Verdun and the safety of the place of arms hung in the
balance, Castelnau was sent to stabilize the defence. A few
days later, having provided for the indispensable, Castelnau
handed over control of affairs to Petain, who took the battle
in hand with method and energy, fought the attack to a stand-
still and saved Verdun. He was rewarded by being made a
Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour and was placed in com-
mand of the group of armies of the Centre.
During the following winter Gen. Nivelle succeeded Gen. Joffre as commander-in-chief. Petain's group of armies was not embraced in Nivelle's offensive scheme, but it was known that he was thoroughly doubtful of its success, and after its failure Petain was appointed, first oa April 27 chief of the general staff of the army, and then on May 15 commander-in- chief of the French armies on the western front. This position he took up at a moment when his troops were discouraged and mutinies were breaking out owing to severe losses, disillusion- ment following on over-sanguine hopes, and war-weariness, when the effects of the Russian revolution and those of America's intervention were alike difficult to discern, and when his own country was losing heart. He saw clearly that, in view of the wastage in man-power caused by three years of devastating war, an offensive project on a great scale, such as his prede- cessor had adventured, was impossible for the time being, and he therefore resolved first to nurse back the army to a healthy state of moral and then to restore its offensive powers by one or two battles with limited objectives in which victory was made certain by careful and abundant preparations. It was in ac- cordance with this policy that he fought the Aug. battle at Verdun and that of Oct. on the Chemin des Dames, for which he was given the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. He established and maintained a close understanding with Sir D. Haig, and when the British V. Army was virtually rolled up near St. Quentin in March 1918, his promptitude in despatching reinforcements to the point of danger did much to relieve the critical situation. After Foch became generah'ssimo, portions of Petain's forces played the leading part in the decisive counter- stroke near Soissons which first turned the scale, and during the subsequent victorious operations of the Allies, the French commander-in-chief was most successful in coordinating the advance of his forces at all points along a very extended front, maintaining his liaison with the British on the one flank and the Americans on the other, and in the case of the latter taking an active part in the preparation of their two offensives. He was created marshal of France on the conclusion of hostilities, in recognition of his brilliant services during the war, and he was the recipient of many high honours from the Allied Govern- ments. He subsequently held the position of vice-president of the Conseil Superieur de la Guerre.
PETERS, KARL (1856-1918), German traveller (see 21.300). In 1907-8 Peters, who had again taken up residence in Germany brought actions for libel against a Munich journal and the Cologne Gazette, seeking to clear his character in regard to his administration in E. Africa. These actions wrought no change in public opinion in Germany and Peters remained on the retired list. However, in April 1914, at the instance of the Imperial
Colonial Office he was granted a pension. During the World War he supported the extreme pan-German programme. In
Feb. 1918 he published an autobiography, and he died at
Woltorf, Brunswick, on Sept. 10 of the same year. He had lived
to see German E. Africa, which he founded, conquered by British
and Belgian troops.
PETERSON, SIR WILLIAM (1856-1921), British educationalist, was born at Edinburgh May 29 1856, the son of John Peterson, a merchant. He was educated at Edinburgh high school and University, and after being for a short time at Gottingen, in 1876 obtained the Ferguson classical scholarship and entered Corpus Christi College, Oxford. On leaving Oxford he was at first an assistant master at Harrow, but in 1879 became assistant pro-
