fessor of classics at Edinburgh. In 1882 he was made first principal of the newly founded University College at Dundee, but in 1895 he was appointed principal and professor of classics at McGill University, Canada. During his 24 years' tenure of this important position the university greatly progressed, and the scientific faculties in particular advanced considerably. In 1915 he was made K.C.M.G. In 1919 he was incapacitated by a stroke, and resigned his position, and being taken to England died at Hampstead Jan. 4 1921.
Sir William Peterson was for some years chairman of the Carnegie foundation for the advancement of teaching in America. His pub- lished works include editions of Quintilian's Institutes of Oratory (1891); the Dialogue on Orators of Tacitus (1893 and 1914); the Speech of Cicero for Cluentius (1895 and 1899); the Cluni MS. of Cicero (1901) and Cicero's Verrine Orations (1907); besides Cana- dian Essays and Addresses (1915).
PETROLEUM (see 21.316*). Under the stimulus of increased consumption and many new uses for petroleum products, the search for petroleum both in the older producing countries and in new territories, often remote from civilization, was rewarded by important extensions and discoveries and, in many instances,
by subsequent development, with the result that between the
years 1908 and 1920 the world's petroleum production more than
doubled. The increase is shown in the following table from the
U.S. Geological Survey:
World's Production.
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Barrels of 42
U.S. Gal.
1908
285,552,746
1915
427,740,129
1909
298,616,405
1916
459,4 ".737
1910
327,937,629
1917
508,687,302
1911
344. '74-355
1918
514,729,354
1912
352,446,598
1919
544,885,000
1913
383,547.399
1920
694,854,000
1914
403,745,652
In the period 1908-21 many prolific fields in the United States were developed, enabling that country to keep its preemi- nent position; Mexico grew from unimportance to second posi- tion; Argentina, Venezuela, Trinidad, Egypt and Persia devel- oped production of commercial importance; Russia added the Maikop and Ural-Caspian fields, and Japan the Akita prefec- ture. In 1920 the United States produced 63-8% of the world's output, and up to the end of that year had produced 62-1 % of the world's total commercial yield. The rank of the vari- ous petroleum-producing countries is shown in the table given below:
NORTH AMERICA
United States. Petroleum production in the United States in 1920 totalled 443,402,000 barrels. The following table from the U.S. Geological Survey gives the production of the important divi- sions in 1920 and in 1908, stated in bar. of 42 U.S. gallons :
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1920
1908
Appalachian
30,511,000
24,945,517
California . Lima-Indiana Rocky Mountain
105,668,000 3,059,000 I7,5i7,ooo
44.854,737 10,032,305 397.428
Illinois Mid-Continent
10,772,000 249,074,000
33,686,238 48,823,747
Gulf
26,801,000
15,772,137
Others
15,246
Total ....
443,402,000
178,527,355
The Appalachian area extends across the Appalachian Plateaus from south-western New York to Tennessee. It includes Kentucky, W. Virginia, Pennsylvania, New York and eastern Ohio. Oil and gas sands occur throughout a long stratigraphic interval, including rocks ranging in age from Ordovician to Carboniferous. Petroleum from the Appalachian area is a high-grade paraffin oil, the average gravity being about 45 Baum6 (0-8,000 sp.gr.). The average for Kentucky is not quite so high. The Appalachian district is the oldest oil-producing area in the United States (see 21.317), and while a gradual decrease in its production from 1912 was shown, high prices and great demand resulted in substantial increases in 1919 and 1920. That the rate of decline was so slow is due to the remarkable thrift of small producers who have found it profitable to operate leases where production is one-sixth of a barrel a day and sometimes even less. A factor which has tended to revive and increase production in certain Pennsylvania districts is the so-called "water drive," by which water pressure is put on the rock to supplement the exhausted gas pressure. An instance of the result of the water drive is shown by figures of an eastern pipe-line attached to nearly 18,000 wells in the Bradford and Allegheny pools; this line in 1909 ran 1,531,000 bar. ; in 1913 1,267,000 bar., a decrease of over 17%; and in 1920 the amount had risen again to about 1,568,000 bar., showing an increase in eight years of 23-8 per cent.
The Lima-Indiana field covers north-western Ohio and north- eastern Indiana, the oil being obtained from lenses or discontinuous layers in Trenton limestone. The average gravity is about 39 Baumd (0-8,285 sp.gr.), although some of the oil is much heavier. The Lima-Indiana field is steadily declining.
The principal productive area in the Illinois field is in the south- eastern part of the state, but there are also small scattered pools in central and western Illinois. Most of the oil is obtained from beds of sandstone in the Pennsylvania and Mississippian series of the Carboniferous system. In gravity the oils range from 27 to 37 Baum6 (0-8,917 to 0-8,383 sp.gr.). This field is also declining.
In the period between 1908 and 1921, the greatest increases in production in the United States occurred in the mid-continent field, embracing Oklahoma, Kansas, northern and central Texas, northern Louisiana and southern Arkansas. In 1920 the mid-continent field
United States Geological Survey World Production of Petroleum.
Country
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Production, 1920
Total production, 1857-1920
Barrels of 42 U.S. gal.
Metric tons
Cubic meters
Per cent of total by volume
Date of First Produc- tion
Barrels of 42 U.S. gal.
Metric tons
Cubic meters
Percent of total by volume
United States .
443,402,000
62,188,000
70,492,000
63-8
1859
5,429,693,000
729,640,000
863,213,000
62-1
Mexico
163,540,000
24,410,000
26,000,000
23-5
1901
536,524,000
80,047,000
85,287,000
6-1
Russia
25,429,600
3471.130
4,042,800
3-6
1863
1,904,021,000
252,072,000
302,701,000
21-8
Dutch East Indies .
17,529,210
2,365,347
2,786,840
2-5
1893
219,584,000
29(690,000
34,910,000
2-5
Persia
12,352,655
1,685,219
1,963,825
1-8
1908
48,070,000
6,558,000
7,642,000
5
India ....
7,500,000
1,000,000
1,192,000
i-i
1889
122,583,000
16,343,000
19,488,000
1-4
Rumania .
7.435.344
1,034,123
1,182,110
i-i
1859
165,462,000
23,013,000
26,305,000
1-9
Poland (Galicia)
5,606,116
764,818
891,260
8
1874
171,263,000
23,700,000
27,228,000
2-O
Peru ....
2,816,649
373,280
447,797
4
1896
29,797,000
3,968,000
4,737,000
Japan and Formosa
2,139.777
285,076
340,180
3
1875
42,810,000
5,708,000
6,806,000
Trinidad . . t
2,083,027
289,712
33i,i6o
3
1908
11,356,000
1,580,000
i ,805,000
Argentina .
1,665,989
242,502
264,859
2
1911
7,225,000
i ,043,000
1,149,000
Egypt
i ,042,000
152,120
165,660
2
1907
6,990,000
1,017,000
1, 111,000
British Borneo
(Sarawak)
1,015,949
146,285
161,516
2
4,052,000
584,000
644,000
Venezuela .
456,996
69,539
72,653
1913
1,335,000
203,000
212,000
1-7
France (Alsace)
388,700
54,900
61,800
1880
723,000
102,000
115,000
Germany .
212,046
29,950
33,7"
1880
17,120,000
2,318,000
2,722,000
Canada
196,937
26,258
31,310
2
1862
24,864,000
3,315,000
3,953,000
Italy ....
34,180
4,750
5,434
1860
1,042,000
148,000
166,000
Algeria
3.916
609
623
1915
37,000
6,000
6,000
England
Other Countries
2,909
382
462
1919
5,000 416.000
\ 56,000
67,000
,
Total ....
694.854.000
98,594.000
1 10.468.000
IOO-O
8,744,972,000
i , 1 8 1 , 1 1 1 ,000
1,390,267,000
IOO-0
- These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.