Owing to their geographical position the commercial development of the islands has advanced even more rapidly than the material improvement in the circumstances of the people. A treaty of commerce was concluded in 1876 between the United States and the Hawaiian Islands, under which the manufactures of the former and the chief productions of the latter are reciprocally allowed to enter duty free. This treaty has been of great benefit to the islands, more especially by stimulating the cultivation of the sugar cane. The principal exports are sugar, rice, coffee, hides, skins, tallow, and wool. In 1878 the total amount of exports reached the value of about 3,500,000 dollars, whilst the value of imports amounted to about 3,000,000 dollars. The United States are by far the largest customers for the articles exported, and supply the great bulk of the imported goods. In 1878 there were 54 vessels registered under the Hawaiian flag, of which 11 were engaged in whaling and foreign trades, whilst 43 were coasters, making a total of 8000 tons. In 1878, besides the mail steamers, 216 merchant vessels of various foreign nations entered the Hawaiian ports.
Many good roads have been made, and railways have been projected; a telegraph line was opened in 1878 between Wailuku and Lahaina in Maui (40 miles), and has since been extended; considerable capital has been brought in by foreigners; and the price of land is rising. A Government survey of the islands is in progress.
Climate and Meteorology.—The climate in general is warm but very salubrious. The temperature is equable and the sky usually cloudless. The N.E. trades blow for nine months; and the leeward coast, being protected by high mountains, is refreshed by regular land and sea breezes. During January, February, and March the wind blows strongly from the S.W.; and at this season an unpleasant hot damp wind from the equatorial region occasionally makes itself felt. Very much more rain falls on the windward side of the principal islands than on the leeward. Thus at Hilo, on tha east coast of Hawaii, the usual rainfall is said to amount to 80 inches, and in some years to more than twice that quantity, whilst at Honolulu on the south coast of Oahu, out of the reach of the windward rains, the mean annual rainfall for the five years ending 1877 varied from 32·30 to 46·40 inches, the average being about 38. The mean annual temperature at the same place for the same period was 75° Fahr. The mean temperature of the coldest month during the five years was 62° Fahr., and that of the hottest month 81° Fahr. Strong gales blow once or twice during the winter, but destructive hurricanes are entirely unknown.
Zoology.—When Cook arrived at the islands he found only hogs, dogs, and rats. There is a day-flying bat; a small lizard is found, but no other reptiles. Cattle, goats, and hogs at the present day run wild upon the mountains in the larger islands, and do much damage to the woods. As to the birds, fifty-three species have been enumerated by Mr Sanford Dole in Proceedings of Boston Soc. of Natural History (cf. Sclater’s paper in Ibis, 1871), but it is thought that many more species remain to be discovered in the mountain districts. In former times the chiefs exacted as a tax from the people the gay feathers of certain species (Drepanus and Moho), and employed them to ornament their state robes, only one of which is now in existence, and that is kept with the greatest care for the king’s use on state occasions. Mr Dole’s list includes of Falconidæ 2 species, Strigidæ 1, Promeropidæ 10, Meliphagidæ 4, Turdidæ 2, Ampelidæ 1, Corvidæ 1, Fringillidæ 5, Charadridæ 2, Scolopacidæ 3, Ardeidæ 2, Rallidæ 5, Anatidæ 3, Procellaridæ 2, Laridæ 5, and Pelicanidæ 3. One of the Rallidæ, now nearly extinct, is remarkable for having rudimentary wings, like the moa of New Zealand, hidden in long, loose, hairy feathers. Dr Otto Finsch, who visited Honolulu in 1879, says that the native birds, as well as the native plants, are being ousted by introduced species. The house sparrow from Europe and the maina (Acridotheres tristis ?) and the turtle-dove (Turtur chinensis) from China are almost the only birds to be seen in and about the town; and in order to obtain specimens of indigenous species he had to go far inland. (See Proceed. Roy. Geog. Soc., Jan. 1880.)
Botany.—The ravines and mountain slopes on the windward side of the larger islands contain much forest growth, whilst the leeward uplands and plains are comparatively bare. Amongst the more remarkable forms are a Pandanus, or screw pine, and the Aleurites, or candle-nut tree, so named from the natives stringing together the kernels, which are very oily, and so making a candle. Sandalwood, formerly plentiful, has been exhausted. The cocoa-nut palm grows in abundance on the coast. For the following valuable notes on the flora, we are indebted to Dr William Hillebrand, who for many years studied the subject on the spot with the view of publishing a complete work upon it:—
“The flora of these islands, according to my researches, comprises 829 species of phanerogams and 147 species of vascular cryptogams. These 976 species are distributed amongst 358 genera. There are 144 species of monocotyledons, of which 45 belong to the Cyperaceæ and 63 to the Gramineæ. Only 3 species of orchids have been found. Of the 829 species of phanerogamous plants 94 are known to have been introduced since the advent of the white man, whilst 597 species are peculiar to the islands, leaving only 138 species which are found elsewhere. With few exceptions the peculiar genera are the richest in species, but some of the genera not entirely Hawaiian are also remarkable for the number of their species; for example, Cyrtandra has 29 species, Piperomia 21, Pittosporum 12, and Euphorbia 10. Amongst the peculiar dicotyledonous plants there is not a single annual; and by far the greater number are arborescent or frutescent. There are only two native species of palm, both belonging to the genus Pritchardia. Of ferns there are 130 species, including 35 of Asplenium, 16 of Aspidium, 16 of Polypodium, and 8 of Phegopteris. The tree ferns number 5 species, 3 belonging to the genus Cibotium, and 2 to Sadleria. As to the derivation of the flora a distinction must be made between the lower and middle regions and the upper mountainous region. The two former are manifestly connected with the south-western Polynesian and Malaysian flora, so far as the latter is represented by the Moluccas and New Guinea, and connected by Wallace with the Australian continent. Some of the prevailing forest trees of the lower region are identical with the species found in the localities just mentioned, e.g., Aleurites moluccana, Jambosa malaccensis, Alphidoxia excelsa, Dodonæa viscosa, Thespesia populnea, Cordia subcordata, Artocarpus incisa, Paritium tiliaceum, Broussonetia papyrifera, and Cordyline terminalis. Most of the forest trees of the middle belt, although peculiar as species, have very near congeners in the same direction, as Metrosideros polymorpha, Acacia Koa (with phyllodia), the Peleas, Pseudopanax, Gouldia, Sophora, Elæocarpus, Pittosporum, Bobea, Straussia, Caprosma, Maba, Sapota, Myrsine, Olea, Pisonia, Santalum, Charpentiera, &c. But with regard to the flora of the highest region in the Hawaiian Islands, there are many plants and some entire orders which point to the American continent as the land of their nearest allies,—for instance, the Compositæ with few exceptions, the Rosaceæ, Geraniaceæ, and most of the Labiatæ.”
Geology and Mineralogy.—Though the islands are mountainous, none of the eminences reach the limit of perpetual snow. All the islands are of volcanic origin and are entirely composed of the products of eruption. On one of them (Hawaii) the volcanic forces are still in operation; on all the others they have been quiescent for an indefinite period, and the superficial rocks are in a more or less advanced state of decay. Where volcanic action has long ceased deep ravines have been excavated on the sides of the mountains, and this is especially the case on the windward side of Hawaii, where the rainfall is very large. The headlands frequently terminate in lofty cliffs, sometimes overhanging the sea to a height of 2000 feet; and these afford additional evidence of a prolonged period of repose. The products of the Hawaiian volcanoes are rather scanty. According to Mr Brigham they consist of hydrochloric, sulphuric, and sulphurous acids, native sulphur, pyrites, common salt, sal ammoniac, hæmatite, quartz, palagonite, felspar, chrysolite, thomsonite, gypsum, solfatarite, copperas, nitre, arragonite, labradorite, and limonite. Evidence of slight upheaval is furnished by those parts of the shore where old coral reefs are found, sometimes as high as 100 feet above the sea.
Government and Laws.—The form of government is a constitutional monarchy, with a legislature composed of 20 nobles appointed by the king for life, and 28 representatives elected every two years by the people—the two classes sitting together. An annual income of 75 dollars is the qualification of an elector. The king has a cabinet of ministers and a privy council. The Government is regularly organized, its departments are efficiently managed, and the laws are justly administered. Many of the principal offices are filled by foreigners, chiefly Americans, who have become Hawaiian subjects. It is somewhat of a burlesque of the proceedings of royalty in Europe that here, where the whole body of subjects is less than the population of a small English county, we find in full display the titles of majesty, royal highness, prince, excellency, &c., as well as knights grand cross and other grades of two royal orders! A governor is appointed by the king for each of the larger islands. Diplomatic representatives of Great Britain, France, and the United States of America are resident at Honolulu, and also consuls of these and other foreign powers. At London, Paris, New York, and several other foreign cities there are Hawaiian diplomatic and consular agents. An efficient postal system has been established, and there is a standing army of about 70 men. The laws are modelled on those of the United States. There is a supreme court of justice, as well as circuit judges and district justices, assisted by a police force.
Religion and Education.—The ancient idolatrous religion has been abandoned since 1819, and the whole population has embraced Christianity. All forms are tolerated, and at Honolulu there are six churches belonging to the Roman Catholic, Protestant Episcopal, and Congregational communions. The bishop of the Church of England is styled the bishop of Honolulu, and the Roman Catholics have also a bishop. The Congregationalists are most numerous. Originally started by the foreign missionaries, the question of education has been taken up by the Government, who have established a board to superintend the affairs connected with this subject. Nearly every native can read and write. In 1878 there were 222 schools, attended by 3991 boys and 3000 girls. In the majority of these schools the instruction is communicated in Hawaiian; but in some of a higher grade English is employed, and, as the people themselves desire it, that language is more and more introduced.
