Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 11.djvu/655

The lectures on the Philosophy of Art stray largely into the next sphere and dwell with zest on the close connexion of art and religion; and the discussion of the decadence and rise of religions, of the wsthetic qualities of Christian legend, of the age of chivalry, &c., make the .2sthetik a book of varied interest.

The leetures on the Philosophy of Religion, though unequal in their composition and belonging to different dates, serve to exhibit the vital connexion of the system with Christianity. Religion, like art, is inferior to philosophy as an exponent of the harmony between man and the absolute. In it the absolute exists as the poetry and music of the heart, in the inwardness of feeling. Hegel after ex- pounding the nature of religion passes on to discuss its historical phases, but in the immature state of religious science falls into several mistakes. At the bottom of the scale of nature-worships he places the religion of sorcery. The gradations which follow are apportioned with some uncertainty amongst the religions of the East. With the Persian religion of light and the Egyptian of enigmas we pass to those faiths where Godhead takes the form of a spiritual individuality, ¢.c., to the Hebrew religion (of sublimity), the Greek (of beauty), and the Roman (of adaptation), Last comes absolute religion, in which the mystery of the reconciliation be- twecn God and man is an open doctrine. This is Christianity, in which God is a Trinity, because He is a spirit. The revelation of this truth is the subject of the Christian Scriptures. For the Son of God, in the immediate aspect, is the finite world of nature and man, which far from being at one with its Father is originally in an attitude of estrangement. The history of Christ is the visible reconciliation between man and the eternal. With the death of Christ this union, ceasing to be a mere fact, becomes a vital idea,—- the Spirit of God which dwells in the Christian community.

The lectures on the History of Philosophy deal disproportionately with the various epochs, and in some parts date from the beginning of Hegel’s career. Iu trying to subject history to the order of logic they sometimes misconceive the filiation of ideas. But they created the history of philosophy as a scientific study. They showed that a philosophical theory is not an accident or whim, but an exponent of its age determined by its antecedents aud environments, and handing on its results to the future,

For ten years after Hegel’s death his system remained the fore- most intcllectual phenomenon of the time, Besides Gans, Hinrichs, Henning, and Hotho, who have been already alluded to, the most prominent of his immediate disciples were Gabler, whose Propdider- tik is a good introduction to Hegel; K. L. Michelet, one of the most ardent Hegelians, who is now (1879) ou the point of eomplet- ing a summary of the systein ; Daub and Marheineke, two theo- logians ; and Gischel, whose Aphorismen iber nicht- Wissen und absolutes Wisscn elicited an appreciative review from Hegel. In zsthctics, wherc the school won some distinction, are the names of Schasler, Rosenkranz, and Vischer. Karl Rosenkranz, the literary champion of the system, has just ended a life devoted to its expo- sition ; Erdmann still teaches in its spirit at Halle, as does Kuno Fischer at Jena. The last two have specially distinguished them- selves by their histories of modern philosophy. With Michelet they form the more orthodox and conscrvative section of the school. The opposition to its doctrines was concentrated in the Zeitschrift fir Philosophir, founded in 1837 by the younger Fichte with the help of Weisse; while Beneke and other followers of Herbart vigorously attacked its metaphysics and psychology. But the most notable outgrowth of Hegelianism was the so-called ‘ Left,” the critical and heterodox school of Feuerbach, Bruno Bauer, and Ruge. While Hegel had vindicated God as the subject of metaphysics, maintained the consonance of philosophy and theology, and elevated the state to sovercignty in ethics, the Left eliminated God from the system, exposed its alleged pantheistic or atheistic tendencies, and reasserted the supremacy of the individual in morals. To diseuss the evolution of Hegelianism in this direction would almost be to write the history of modern German philosophy up to 1860. Hegelianism bas now ceased to exist as an isolated system in Ger- miny, though its spirit and method have leavened the whole mass of philosophic thought. Out of Germany, besides occasional ad- mirers ant disciples, it has attracted a considerable amount of genc- ral curiosity. In England it has stimulated philosophical thought, and probably suggested the correction of some national limitations; but few if any profess to accept the system in its intecrity. Pro- fessor Vera of Naples is perhaps its most enthusiastic advocate on the Continent, whilst the Journal of Speculative Philosophy upholds its banner in America.

Bibliography.—Shortly after Hegel’s death his collected works were published by a number of his friends, who combined for the purpose. They appeared in eighteen volumes in 1832, and a second edition came out about twelve years later. Volumes i.—viii. con- tain the works published by himself ; the remainder is made up of his lectures on the Philosophy of History, ¥sthetic, the Philosophy of Religion, and the History of Philosophy, besides some essays and reviews, with a few of his letters, and the Philosophical Propedeutie.

For his life see Rosenkranz, Leben Hegels, Berlin, 1844 ; Haym, Hegel und scine Zeit, Berlin, 1857; Kostlin, Hegel in philosoph- ischer, politischer, und nationaler Bezxiehung, Tiibingen, 1870; Rosen- kranz, Hegel als Deutscher National-philosoph, Berlin, 1870, and his Newe Studien, vol. iv., Berlin, 1878.

For the philosophy, see Ruge’s Aus Fritherer Zeit, vol. iv., Berlin, 1867; Hayin (as above). Trendelenburg (in Logische Untersuch- ungen), Kym (Metaphysiche Untersuchungen), and C. Hermann (Zegel und die logische Frage, and other works) are noticeable as modern critics. Vera has translated the Eacyclopaédie into French, with notes ; Bénard, the -sthetics, In English Dr Stirling’s Secret of Hegel, 2 vols., London, 1865, contains a translation of the beginning of the IVissenschaft der Logik ; the ‘‘ Logic” from the Encyclopadie has been translated, with prolegomena, by W. Wallace, Oxford, 1874; and large portions have been translated in the Americen Journal of Speculative Philosophy—especially by its energetie editor, W. T. Harris.

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HEIBERG, Johan Ludvig (1791–1860), Danish poet and critic, was the son of the political writer Peter Andreas Heiberg, and of the famous novelist, afterwards the Baroness Gyllembourg-Ehrensvard. He was born at Copenhagen, December 14, 1791. In 1800 his father was exiled, and he was taken by Rahbek and his excellent wife into their house at Bakkehuset. They found him, however, very difficult to manage, and about 1802 sent him back to his own family. His mother’s marriage being by a state decree annulled, she married the Swedish baron Gyllem- bourg-Ehrensvird, keeping up, however, friendly corre- spondence with her first husband in Paris. In 1805 she describes, in one of these letters, the brilliant precocity of the young Johan. The latter proceeded to the university of Copenhagen in 1809. It was not needful that he should earn his bread, and accordingly his mother indulged for many years his extraordinary thirst for knowledge. In 1812 he visited Sweden, and made some long stay in Stockholm; he afterwards sent to his mother from Upsala the first important poem which he composed, //jemkomsten (The Return Home), a piece of remarkable strength and brightness. In 1813 his first publication appeared, a romantic drama for children, entitled The Theatre for Marionettes. This was followed by Christmas Jokes and New Year's Tricks in 1816, The Initiation of Psyche, 1817, and The Prophecy of Tycho Brahe. These works attracted attention at a time when Baggesen, Oehlenschliger, and Ingemann possessed the popular ear, and were understood at once to be the opening of a great career. In 1817 Heiberg tuok his degree, and in 1819 went abroad with a grant from Government. He proceeded to Paris, and spent the next three years there, under his father’s roof. In 1822 he published his drama of Nina, and was made professor of the Danish language at the university of Kiel. At this town he delivered a course of lectures, comparing the Scandinavian mythology as found in the Zdda with the poems of Oelilenschliger. These lectures were published in German in 1827, In 1825 Heiberg came back to Copenhagen for the purpose of introducing the vaudeville^[1] on the Danish stage. Mean- while he was producing dramatic work of a more serious kind: in 1828 he brought out the national drama of Filverhii, in 1835 the comedy of The Elves, and in 1838 Fata Morgana. In 1841 Heiberg published a volume of New Poems, containing “A Soul after Death,” which is perhaps his masterpiece, “The Newly Wedded Pair,” and other pieces. All this time he had been busily engaged in editing the famous journal, The Copenhagen Flying Post, which he founded in 1827 and continued until 1837. In 1831 he married Johanne Louise Pztges, the greatest actress that Scandinavia has produced. Heiberg’s scathing satires at last began to make him very unpopular; and this antagonism reached its height when, in 1845, he published

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1. He composed a great number of vaudevilles,’of which the best known are King Solomon and George Hatmaker, 1825; April Fools, 1896 ; A Story in Rosenborg Garden, 1827 ; Kjige Huskors, 18381; The Danes in Paris, 1833 ; No, 1836 ; Yes, 1839; and Emily's Beating Teart, 1840,