Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 9.djvu/362

348 F L F L near B6ziers, in the department of Herault, April 15, 1794. At the age of fifteen he began the study of medicine at Montpellier, where in 1823 he received the degree of doctor. In the following year he repaired to Paris, provided with an introduction from De Candolle, the botanist, to Cuvier, who received him kindly, and interested himself in his welfare. At Paris Flourens engaged in physiological research, occasionally contributing to literary publications ; and in 1821, at the Athene e there, he gave a course of lectures on the physiological theory of the sensations, which attracted much attention amongst men of science. His paper entitled Recherches experimentales sur les proprietSs et les f auctions du systeme nerveux dans les animaux vcrtebres, in which he, from experimental evidence, sought to assign their special functions to the cerebrum, corpora quadrigemina, and cerebellum, was the subject of a highly commendatory report by Cuvier, adopted by the French Academy of Sciences, July 22, 1822. He was chosen by Cuvier in 1828 to deliver for him a course of lectures on natural history at the College de France, and in the same year became, in succession to Bosc, a member of the Insti tute, in the division "Economic rurale." In 1830 he became Cuvier s substitute as lecturer on human anatomy at the Jardia du Iloi, and in 1832 was elected to the post of titular professor, which he vacated for the professorship of com parative anatomy created for him at the museum of the Jardin the same year. In 1833 Flourens, in accordance with the dying request of Cuvier, was appointed a perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences ; and in 1838 he was returned as a deputy for the arrondissement of Btiziers . In 1840 he was elected, in preference to Victor Hugo, to succeed Michaud at the French Academy ; and he was created on April 24, 1845, a commander of the legion of honour, and in the next year a peer of France. In March 1847 Flourens directed the attention of the Academy of Sciences to the anaesthetic effect of chloroform on animals ; and it is an interesting fact in the history of therapeutics that " chloric ether," a ^spirituous solution of chloroform, was in the spring of the same year first employed, at the suggestion of Dr M. C. Furnell, in surgical operations at St Bartholomew s Hospital. On the revolu tion of 1848, Flourens withdrew completely from the political world ; and in 1855 he accepted the professorship of natural history at the College de France. Three years before his death, which took place at Montgeron near Paris, December 6, 18G7, he retired from his active duties at the Academy of Sciences. As an experimental physiologist Flourens holds the highest rank. Besides a multitude of shorter scientific memoirs, he published Essai sur quclques points de la doctrine de la revulsion et de la deri vation, Montpellier, 1813; Experiences sur le systeme nerveux, Paris, 1825; C ours sur la generation, Vovologie, et Vembryologie, 1836; Analyse raisonee dcs travaux de G. Cuvier, 1841; RecJicrches sur le devcloppcmcnt des oset des dents, 1842; Anatomic generalc de lapcau et des membranes muqucuses, 1843; Buffon, histoire de scs travaux et de scs idees, 1844; Fontencllc, ou de la philosophic moderne rcla- tivement aux sciences physiques, 1847; Theorie cxperimcntale de la formation des os, 1847; (Euvrcs completes do Buffon, 1853; De la longevite humainc et de la quantite de vie sur le globe, 1854, numer ous eds. ; Histoire de la decouvcrte de la circulation du sang, 1854; Cours de physiologic, comparee, 1856; Rccue.il des elogcs historiqucs, 1856; De la vie et de V intelligence, 1858; DC la ration, du genie, et de la folie, 1861; Ontologic naturclle, 1861; Examen du livre de M. Darwin sur VOrigine dcs Especes, 1864. For list of papers see Royal Society s Catalogue, vols. ii. and vii. FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL. There ars few branches of ornamental work used in the decoration of ladies apparel which have more increased in importance than that of artificial flower making, in which, both in France and in England, large numbers of workpeople are engaged. Not only has the trade itself greatly extended within the last few years, but the improvement in the manufacture is very marked, and the bouquets and wreaths used in the trim ming of dresses may be almost said to rival nature, so truly and delicately are the individual flowers manipulated. Artificial flower making is almost entirely done by hand, giving occupation principally to young women and children, the majority of whom work at home or in small shops. The numbers employed at the time of the census of 1871 were returned as 4886, of whom ] 740 were under twenty years of age. In France the numbers are much larger, for ten years ago it was estimated that there were at leist 2000 shops where artificial flowers were made, and it is probable that now these have been increased to 3000. It is not entirely a woman s work, however, for men are em ployed, particularly in Paris, in cutting out the material for the flowers by a stamp machine, in which 16 or 20 folds are operated upon at once, the folds being coloured green, blue, crimson, according to the flower which is to be imitated. Each piece is taken up separately by a girl armed with a pair of pincers, who, with one dexterous movement, moulds it, as it were, roughly into the shape of the flower, and then passes it on to another who gives a more precise form to the petal. A third girl attaches each petal to a very fine wire, thread having been pre viously twisted round this wire to form the stalk ; while the remaining operations consist in goffering the petals and leaves to give them a curl, and finally gumming or waxing them over, or dusting them with fine powdered glass or potato flour to represent the bloom. The rapidity and accuracy with which these various processes are completed are very remarkable. A new style of artificial flower has lately come into vogue, in France more especially, made by the " enamel process," in which a young girl sits by a jet of flame, holding in her hand a stick of prepared glass. A momentary application to the flame makes the end of the stick red hot, and while it is still in a pasty state, the operator pulls out a short length, and immediately rolls it up into the form of the petal or leaf, and passes it on to the painter for the proper colouring. The remaining processes are similar to those of the ordinary artificial flowers. These enamel flowers, though wondrously true and pretty, are more suited for room decoration than for dress. While apparently a light and pleasant work, artificial flower making is not one of the healthiest of our trades, partly for the reason that it is so often carried on in small household shops, where ventilation is of the scantiest. It has, however, been much improved in this respect, since it has come under the supervision of the Factory Acts. There is always a certain amount of dust and colouring matter flying about the room, which is more or less injurious, though the use of Scheele s green and sulphate of copper (verdigris blue) is almost discontinued, and with it a train of symp toms that usually accompany arsenical poisoning. Weak eyes are a common source of complaint, especially the form called asthenopia, which is particularly induced when white flowers are made by gas light. In the manufacture of the flowers, the net cost is about three-fifths of the whole for material, and the remaining two-fifths for the labour. In France the earnings of the men who cut the folds are from 4 to 5 francs per day, of the workwomen from 2-| to 3.V, according to ability. In England a skilful flower worker will earn from 20s. to 25s. per week, though there is a drawback in its being a season trade, which is very brisk about the spring and fall of the year, and as inactive during the other times. Besides the very large number of artificial flowers made in England, the following table shows how great is the importation, principally from France :- 1866 293,306 1867 304,440 1868 341,176 1869 365,407 1870... ...266,502 1871... ... 367,186 1872... .. 411.540 1873... ... 449,320 1874.. 1875.. 1876.. 1878 544,625 .447,351 . 510,800 496,987 Belgium and Holland likewise supply Great Britain but to a much smaller extent.