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CHANGES AT ATHENS UNDER PEwivLES. 353 materially increased. We must farther recollect, that the dis- tinction between powers administrative and judicial, so highly valued among the more elaborate governments of modern Eu- rope, since the political speculations of the last century, was in the early history of Athens almost unknown. Like the Roman kings,' and the Roman consuls before the appointment of the praetor, the Athenian archons not only administered, but also ex- ercised jurisdiction, voluntary as well as contentious, — decided disputes, inquired into crimes, and inflicted punishment. Of the same mixed nature were the functions of the senate of Areopa- gus, and even of the annual senate of Five Hundred, the creation of Kleisthenes. The strategi, too, as well as the archons, had doubtless the double competence — in reference to militar}^, naval, and foreign affairs — of issuing orders and of punishing by their ^ See K. F. Herrmann, Griechische Staatsalterthiimer, sects. 53-107, and his treatise De Jure et Anctoritate Magistratuum ap. Athea. p. 53 (Heidelb. 1829); also Rein, Eomisches Privatreclit, pp. 26, 408, Leips. 1836. M. Laboulave also insists particularly upon the confusion of administrative and judiciary functions among the Romans ("Essai sur les Loix Criminelles des Romains, pp. 23, 79, 107, etc.) : and compare Mr. G. C. Lewis, Essay on the Government of Dependencies, p. 42, with his citation from Hugo, Geschichte des Romischen Rechts, p. 42. Mr. Lewis has given just and valuable remarks upon the goodness of the received classification of powers as a theory, and upon the extent to which the separation of them either has been, or can be, carried in practice : see also Note E, in the same work, p. 347. The separation of administrative from judicial functions appears unknown in early societies. M. Meyer observes, respecting the judicial institutions of modem Europe : Anciennement les fonctions administratives et judi- ciaires n'etoient pas distinctes. Du temps de la liberte des Germains et meme long temps apres, les plaids de la nation ou ceux du comte rendoient la justice et administroient les interets nationaux ou locaux dans une seule et meme assemblee : sous le re'gime feodal, le roi ou I'empereur dans son conseil, sa cour, son parlement compose des hauts barons eccMsiastiques et laies, exer^ait tous les droits de -souverainete comme de justice : dans la commune, le bailli, mayeur, ou autre fonctionnaire nomm^ par le prince, administraient les interets communaux et jugeoient les bourgeois de I'avis de la communaute' entiei-e, des corporations qui la composoient, ou des autorites et conseils qui la representoient : on n'avoit pas encore soup(;onne que le jugement d'une cause entre particuliers pit etre Stranger ci la cause commune." — Meyer, Esprit des Institutions Judiciaires, book v, chap, il, vol. iii, p. 239 ; also chap. 18, p. 383. VOL. V. 23oc.