5^3 FRANCE. the apostates, with Littr6 (1801-81) at their head, who reject the subjective phase and hold fast to the earlier doc- trine, and the faithful, who until 1877, when a new division between strict and liberal Comteans took place within this group, gathered about P. Lafifitte (born 1823).* The leader of the English positivists is Frederic Harrison (born 1831). Positivistic societies exist also in Sweden, Brazil, Chili, and elsewhere. Positivism has been developed in an independ- ent spirit by J. S. Mill and Herbert Spencer. The following brief remarks on the course of French philosophy may also be added. Against the sensational- ism of Condillac as continued by Cabanis, Destutt de Tracy (see above, pp. 259-260), and various physiologists, a twofold reaction asserted itself. One manifestation of this proceeded from the theological school, represented by the "traditionalists" Victor de Bonald (1818), Joseph de Maistre (175 3-1 821 ; St. Petersburg Soirees, 1821 ), and F. de Lamennais (1782-1854), who, however, after his break with the Church {Words of a Believer, 1834) de- veloped in his Sketch of a Philosophy , 1841 seq., an ontolog- ical system after Italian and German models. The other came from the spiritualistic school, at whose head stood Maine de Biranf (1766-1824 ; On the Foundations of Psychol- ogy ; his Works have been edited by Cousin, 1841, Naville, 1859, 3.nd Bertrand) and Royer Collard (1763-1845). Their pupil Victor Cousin (1792-1867; Works, 1846-50), who admired Hegel also, became the head of the eclectic school. Cousin will neither deny metaphysics with the Scotch, nor construe metaphysics apriori with the Ger- mans, but with Descartes bases it on psychology. For a time an idealist of the Hegelian type (infinite and finite, God and the world, are mutually inseparable ; the Ideas reveal themselves in history, in the nations, in great men), he gradually sank back to the position of common sense. His adherents, among whom Theodore Jouffroy (died 1842) was the most eminent, have done special service in the history of philosophy. From Cousin's school, which
- 0n this division cf. E. Caro, M. Littr/ et le Positivisme, 1883, and Herm.
Gruber (S. J.), Der PosifiTismus vom Tode Comtes bis auf unsere Tage, 1891. f Cf. E. K6nig in the Philosophiscke Monatshefte, toI. xxv. 1889, p. 160 seq.
