the inhabitants of Attica into twelve local sections. A second Cecrops is mentioned by tradition; but Mr. Grote is of opinion that he is a mere reduplication of the first Cecrops.—J. T.
CEDERHJELM, Josias, a Swedish baron, born in 1673. He held a post in the home department, was also royal secretary, and was employed in various diplomatic services under Charles XII. during his stay in Poland and Saxony. After the battle of Pultowa he was taken prisoner, but liberated on a written engagement to return in four months; when he hastened to Stockholm to lay before the government the proposal of the Czar, and also to assure the nation of the king's safety. This done, he faithfully returned to his imprisonment, from which he was not released till 1722, on the conclusion of peace. Distinguished by his knowledge, energy, and ability, he was immediately afterwards nominated to the office of secretary of state. He attached himself to the Holstein party, and even when member of the council, which he became in the following year, placed himself at its head. After the death of Czar Peter, he was sent in 1725, contrary to the wishes both of the king and Horn, as ambassador to Russia, and in this capacity laboured, in opposition to the object of his mission, to bring about a reconciliation between the contending parties, and to establish a treaty of alliance between Sweden, Austria, and Russia. He was recalled the following year; and the plans of the Holstein party being defeated, Cederhjelm, to avoid his dismissal, petitioned for leave to retire from office; which being granted, he withdrew to his estate of Lindholm in Upland where, two years afterwards, he died, 3rd September, 1729.—M. H.
CEDERSTRÖM, Olof Rudolf, a Swedish admiral, born 8th February, 1764. He distinguished himself in the war of 1788-89. In 1790 he conducted an expedition against Roggersvik, stormed its defences, and destroyed the supplies. In 1808 he drove the Russians out of Gothland, and on the conclusion of peace became governor of that island, where he established an armed force among the people. During 1813-14 he acted as vice-admiral; in 1815 he was appointed councillor of state; and in 1819 received the title of Count. In 1821 he became one of the lords of the empire, and in 1824, after having laboured to reorganize the Swedish navy, he was appointed lord high admiral. Owing to the disgraceful trading which went forward in the commissariat department of the navy, the management of which was committed to Cederström, and the continual attacks on government which it gave rise to, he retired from office in 1828. He died 1st June, 1833.—M. H.
CEDRENUS, Georgius, a Greek monk and chronicler of the eleventh century, author of a synopsis of the Greek general histories published before his time—a work of little value to the student either of history or letters. The last edition of Cedrenus is that of Bekker, published at Bonn in 1838.
CELAKOWSKY, Frantisek Ladislaw, a Bohemian poet and philologist, born near Prague in 1799. Devoting himself to the study of the Slavonic languages, he became editor of a Bohemian newspaper in Prague, and professor of the Bohemian language in the university of that city—offices from which he was dismissed about 1831, for animadverting on the severity of the Russian emperor against the Poles. After being for a time librarian to the Princess Kinsky, he was appointed in 1842 to a chair of Slavonic literature in Breslau, and in 1849 returned to Prague to enter on a professorship of Slavonic philology, which he held till his death in 1852. Celakowsky did much to advance the knowledge of Slavonic literature. He wrote many original works in Bohemian, and made valuable translations from other languages. We notice—a volume of poems; a translation of Herder's Leaves of Antiquity; a collection of Slavonic national songs; a translation of a collection of Russian national songs; "The Hundred-leaved Rose;" and a work named "The Philosophy of the Slavonic Nation in Proverbs."—J. B.
CELER, a Roman architect, who, in conjunction with Severus, drew the plans of Nero's immense palace—the famous golden house. They also projected a navigable canal from the lake of Avernus to the mouth of the Tiber. This gigantic scheme was commenced by Nero, but was left unfinished.
CELESTI, Cavaliere Andrea: this painter, born at Venice in 1637, studied under Matteo Pozzoni, but followed a different manner of art to his preceptor's. He was a fertile, florescent, graceful painter of the Paolo Veronese type—luminous and tender in colour, and freehanded and courageous in drawing. He painted both, sacred and profane subjects. His chief historical works are in the church of the ascension at Venice. Some of his works are much in the manner of Rubens, and marked by an excessive proneness to a tone of purplish carnation. He painted landscapes also, which are scarce and highly prized. Some of these are very beautiful views of Venice and other cities of Italy. He died in 1706.—W. T.
CELESTINE: the name of five popes:—
Celestine I., a Roman, was elected in 422 on the death of Boniface I. The personal character of this remarkable pope can be but dimly guessed at from the records, voluminous though they are, which attest his earnestness as a theologian, and his unresting activity as chief bishop of the church. The acts of his pontificate we notice under two heads—his resistance to heresy, which was called into action mainly in the east, and his measures to evangelize the heathen, which transport us to the north and west.
Nestorius, the famous author of a heresy which in the east still counts its adherents by millions, succeeded to the patriarchate of Constantinople in 428. He prided himself on his zeal for the purity of the faith; and to prove it commenced a cruel persecution of the Arians, Novatians, &c., at Constantinople. But his sermons against the Apollinarians overshot the mark; and while reprobating those who confounded the two natures, he himself denied by implication the unity of the person of Christ. Cyril, the patriarch of Alexandria, detected and combated the error. Nestorius thereupon referred the matter to the pope, to whom Cyril also wrote, sending copies of all the documents which had passed, and stating that he had not yet broken off communion with Nestorius, pending the declaration of the pope's opinion. Celestine, after being furnished with all that each side had to allege, convened a council at Rome, which condemned the doctrine of Nestorius. Upon hearing this, the emperor, Theodosius the Younger, strongly urged by the Nestorian party, convoked the general council of Ephesus, which met in 431. At the second session of the council the papal legates appeared and opened the proceedings by reading a letter from Celestine. The condemnation and deposition of Nestorius were finally resolved on. During the entire proceedings the pope kept up a diligent and vigorous correspondence with the emperor, the council, St. Cyril, and all concerned, and his letters bear the stamp of no common ability. While thus he crushed the new heresy in the east, he was not less watchful against the inroads of an old enemy in the west. He combated semi-pelagianism in Gaul, and pelagianism in Britain, whither he sent St. Germanus in 430 to root it out.
The other great division of his actions embraces his labours for the conversion of the heathen, and must here be very briefly summed up. Early in his pontificate he sent Palladius to convert the Scots; and upon hearing of his death in 432, he selected St. Patrick as his successor, ordained him bishop, and sent him to preach the faith in Ireland. A man, one would say, of some discernment in his choice of instruments! Celestine died in April, 432.
Celestine II., a Tuscan, succeeded Innocent II. in 1143, at a time when disastrous news were constantly arriving from the christian kingdom of Jerusalem. He died within five months after his election—"happy only in this one circumstance," says Platina somewhat satirically, "that on account of, as I suppose, the shortness of the time, he was harassed by no seditions during the whole of his pontificate."
Celestine III. (Cardinal Hyacinth Bobo), of the family of the Orsini, succeeded Clement III. in 1191, being then in his eighty-fifth year. The most memorable act of his pontificate is his interference to procure the release of our Richard Cœur de Lion from imprisonment. Duke Leopold of Austria had seized the king while on his return from Palestine, and for a sum of money transferred him to the custody of the emperor, Henry VI. Moved by the bitter entreaties of Eleanor, Richard's mother, the pope exerted himself to induce the emperor to release his prisoner. But it was not till the payment of a large ransom, of which Leopold received one-third, that Richard obtained his liberty. After the death of Leopold the pope obtained the restitution of his third of the spoil, as the condition of his receiving christian burial. Celestine died in 1197.
Celestine IV., a native of Milan, was elected upon the death of Gregory IX. in 1241, in the midst of the struggle between the papacy and the empire, but lived only eighteen days after his elevation.
