science. In his anatomical pursuits, he was assisted by the works of Vesalius, Fallopius, and Bartholin. He studied especially the fathers of physic, and took as his models Hippocrates and Sydenham. Chemistry and botany also claimed a large share of his attention. In July, 1693, he took the degree of doctor of medicine at the university of Harderwyck in Guelderland, his thesis being on the advantages which result from an examination of the excretions in diseases. In 1701 he was chosen lecturer on the institutes of medicine in Leyden, in room of Drelincourt, and he commenced his duties by a discourse in favour of the study of Hippocrates. In 1709 he became professor of medicine and botany in place of Hotton, and inaugurated his work by a lecture on the necessity of returning to the primitive simplicity of medicine. His zeal for botany was great. He extended the botanic garden at Leyden, and published many botanical memoirs. He gave descriptions of new plants, and formed many new genera. In 1714 he became rector of the university, and succeeded Bidloo in the chair of practice in physic. He may be said to be the founder of clinical instruction in medicine, for he not only gave lectures on medicine, but also explained cases in the hospital to his pupils. He published at this time two standard medical works—"Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis hominum morbis," and "Institutiones Medicæ." He attained a high reputation in Europe as a medical man, and acquired a large fortune by practice. His fame attracted pupils from all quarters. In 1718 he succeeded Le Mort in the professorship of chemistry, and delivered an inaugural discourse, which is the basis of his famous "Elements of Chemistry." He was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences of Paris in 1728, and of the Royal Society of London in 1730. His health began to fail about the year 1722, and he finally resigned the chair of botany and chemistry in 1729. In his final address to his pupils, he reverted to the doctrines of Hippocrates, and declared that man to be the first physician who knew how to wait for and second the efforts of nature. Although he had relinquished his public duties, he still continued his private labours until the year 1738, when he expired at the age of sixty-nine. At the age of sixty-seven he had an interview with Linnæus. The town of Leyden erected a monument to him in the church of St. Peter's. His funeral oration was delivered by his friend, the Rev. M. Schultens. Few medical men have attained such celebrity as Boerhaave. With all his learning he seems to have been a humble christian. Haller speaks of his venerable simplicity and his power of persuasion, and he states that he had often heard him say, when speaking of the gospel precepts, that the Divine Teacher had shown in the Bible far more knowledge of the human heart than Socrates with all his wisdom. The works of Boerhaave are multiplied, and embrace the whole range of medical science. Among them may be noticed his various inaugural orations, on entering on different chairs—"Institutiones Medicæ;" "Medical Aphorisms;" "Catalogue of Plants in the Leyden Garden;" "History of Plants;" "Materia Medica;" "Elements of Chemistry;" treatises on lues venerea, on plague, on mercury, on diseases of the eyes, on clinical practice, besides numerous works edited by him.—J. H. B.
BOERNE, Ludwig, one of the most eminent humorous and political writers of Germany, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, May 22, 1786. His father, Jacob Baruch, was a Jewish banker in easy circumstances, who is said to have been a schoolfellow of Prince Metternich, and who enjoyed so high an authority with the members of his community, that afterwards he was chosen their representative at the congress of Vienna. His grandfather, a fine old gentleman, had been financial agent to the electoral see of Cologne; and by his efforts the election of the Archduke Maximilian, son to Maria Theresa, had been brought about in 1780, a service which for a long time was gratefully remembered at the court of Vienna. Young Löb Baruch, when yet a child, already keenly felt the hateful oppression under which the Jews were labouring in his native town; shut up in their "Judengasse," they were subject to the most humiliating insults from their christian fellow-citizens; and even some twenty years later Baruch was described in his passport as a "Juif de Frankfort." Having taken his degree as Ph.D. at Giessen, he became secretary of police in his native town, a remarkable circumstance in the life of such a radical and indeed revolutionary writer. When, however, instead of the Napoleonic grand-duchy the free town of Frankfort was re-established, Dr. Baruch, as a Jew, was dismissed from office with a pension of 700 florins. In 1818 he in secret became a convert to the protestant church, and adopted the name Ludwig Börne, of which he has given a ludicrous etymology in his "Letters from Paris." Free from all official and religious restraint, he now entered upon his literary career. From 1818-22 he published the "Waage, eine Zeitschrift für Bürgerleben, Wissenschaft und Kunst" (The Balance, a Journal for Civic Life, Science, and the Arts), which at its very outset won him the esteem of the German literary world; and in 1819, "Die Zeitschwingen" (The Wings of Time). He then led a sickly and unsettled life until 1830, when, attracted by the French revolution, he fixed his residence at Paris, where he died February 13, 1837, and was buried in the cemetery of Père la Chaise. Börne's political writings, especially his "Letters from Paris," which roused the German people to all but action, are dictated by a violent revolutionary spirit, which, however, had its only source in his fervent patriotism. There were in Germany no freedom of conscience, no liberty of the press, no juries, no uniformity of law; and all legal means of obtaining redress of such an unnatural and unworthy state had been exhausted in vain. The liberal party, therefore, at last could not bar themselves from the melancholy conviction, that only a passage through the Red Sea of revolution could lead Germany to the land of promise of national and political independence. By the eloquent display of such principles. Börne, of course, gave great offence, not only to the powers that be, but also to a great number of well-meaning men, and even members of his own political creed, who meekly endeavoured to attain the same ends by means of political reform. No one, however, of all his enemies dared to doubt the disinterestedness and integrity of his motives and character. Börne's literary fame chiefly rests upon his non-political writings. His style has all the beauties of Jean Paul's, without its blemishes: it is distinguished by deep thought and tender feeling, blended with sparkling wit and sprightly playfulness; by purity, clearness, and easy elegance. His humorous essays are unrivalled masterpieces; his dramatic critiques take rank with those of Lessing. The last production of his pen, his political and literary will, as it were—for it was written only a few months before his death,—was "Menzel der Franzosenfresser" (Menzel the Gallophagus), an annihilating reply to Wolfgang Menzel, the well-known critic and historian, who had taxed him with his revolutionary principles and his love of the French. Börne indeed loved France, not as his own, but as his adopted country, and had gradually become a great admirer of the French; his great political ideal being an independent alliance of the French and German nations, between whom, to speak with Hamlet,
" Freedom, like the palm, might flourish,
And peace her wheaten garland wear."
It therefore was an object of the highest importance to him to make himself understood also by the French, with whom he hoped for a speedier success than with his dull and tardy countrymen. At his own expense he started two French periodicals, Le Réformateur and La Balance, to which he contributed a number of eminent articles in French, which after his death were collected and edited by M. de Cormenin—"Fragments Politiques et Littéraires par L. B.," Paris, 1842. His collected writings appeared in 16 vols.; his posthumous writings in 6 vols.—(Life, by K. Gutzkow; Hamburg, 1840.)—K. E.
BOERNER, Christian Friedrich, a noted German divine, born at Dresden in 1683. After travelling through Holland and England, he became professor of theology at Leipzig, where he died in 1753. An ancient MS. of a part of the New Testament is called, from having been in his possession. Codex Boernerianus. It contains, with the exception of the Hebrews, the epistles of St. Paul, and is supposed to have been written in the West between the eighth and twelfth centuries. Boerner is the author of a number of works, which amply sustain his fame for prodigious erudition. These are editions of Luther's works and Le Long's Bibliotheca Sacra; "De Exulibus Græcis iisdemque Litterarum in Italia Instauratoribus," 1750; "De Socrate;" "De Ortu atque Progressu Philosophiæ Moralis," 1707; and "Dissertationes Sacræ," 1752.—J. S., G.
BOESCHENSTEIN, Johann, professor of Hebrew at Wittemberg, noted as one of the restorers of that language in Germany, was born toward the close of the fifteenth century. His Hebrew grammar was published in 1514 under the care of his pupil Melancthon.—J. S., G.
