and in 1821 a professor in the university of Berlin. His most celebrated writings are "Historical Researches on the Astronomical Observations of the Ancients," Berlin, 1806; "Researches on the Origin and Meaning of the Names of the Stars," ibid., 1809; "A Handbook of Mathematical and Technical Chronology," ibid., 1825-26; "An Elementary Treatise (Lehrbuch) on Chronology," ibid., 1829; a long series of papers, published chiefly in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy from 1812 till 1838, on various subjects belonging to the history and antiquities of astronomy.—His son, Julius Ludwig Ideler, who was born at Berlin in 1809, and died there in 1842, distinguished himself by his researches in meteorology.—W. J. M. R.
IDES, Everard Ysbrantz, a German traveller of Dutch extraction, was born at Gluckstadt in Holstein about 1660. Proceeding to Russia, and prospering there as a merchant, he attracted the notice of Peter the Great, who, in 1692, sent him to Pekin to conclude a treaty of commerce with the emperor of China, and to determine the boundaries of the two empires. Leaving Moscow in March, he reached Pekin in November. He was favourably received, and succeeded in the objects of his mission, partly through the assistance rendered to him by the jesuits. He died soon after his return to Russia. His travels have been translated into English, French, and German.—W. J. P.
IERMAK, Timofeef, Hetman of the Don Cossacks, conquered Siberia in the sixteenth century. At the head of a small body of determined men, he routed the Tartar hordes, and at once offered the fruits of his victory to Ivan, the czar of Russia. Soon afterwards, however, his forces were surprised in the night; the splendid armour which he wore, and which had been sent to him as a present by the czar, overweighted him, and he fell into the river Vagai amid the confusion of the fight, to rise no more. Iermak was a gallant barbarian, with a kind of grotesque respect for religion, to which he testified by invariably carrying some monks with him to bless his raids and forays.—W. J. P.
IFFLAND, August Wilhelm, a distinguished German actor and dramatist, was born of a good family at Hanover, 19th August, 1759, and died at Berlin, 22nd September, 1814. He was originally destined for the church, but his genius irresistibly drew him to the stage. After serving a kind of apprenticeship under the celebrated Eckhof at Gotha, he obtained an engagement at Mannheim, where his talents raised him to the head of his profession. He was eminently successful in the personation of comic and sentimental characters. In 1796 he was appointed manager of the Berlin National theatre, and in 1811 director-general of all the royal theatres. As an author he particularly excelled in the delineation of domestic life and manners. His plots and characters are well sustained, and his morals excellent; at the same time he displays a remarkable knowledge of the stage. Among the dramas and comedies with which he has enriched the German stage we notice particularly the "Hagestolzen," the "Jäger," and the "Spieler."—K. E.
IGNARRA, Niccolo, classical scholar and archæologist, born at Pietrabianca, near Naples, 21st September, 1728; died in Naples in July or August, 1808. His great aptitude for study displayed itself at an early age; and, when only twenty years old, he was one of the best Italian Hellenists, and a professor of the Greek and Latin languages. In 1755 he became one of the fifteen original members of the Herculanean Academy; in 1771 chief professor of scriptural interpretation in the royal university of Naples; in 1784 preceptor to the hereditary prince, afterwards King Francis II.; and, after declining the archbishopric of Reggio, in 1794 canon of the cathedral. In 1798 he was afflicted with a great decay of memory and intellectual power, and at last could scarcely recollect anything. His principal writings are "De Palæstrâ Neapolitanâ Commentarium," 1770; and "De Phratriis Neapolitanis," 1797, both works of singular research, the latter being an argument in favour of the supposition that the ancient Phratriæ were political, and not religious associations. He also wrote, in Latin, the life of his early friend and preceptor, the learned Mazzocchi, 1778. Ignarra was a very estimable man, charitable, temperate, and modest.—W. M. R.
IGNATIUS of Antioch, one of the apostolical fathers, flourished in the latter half of the first century, and suffered martyrdom at Rome early in the second—probably in the year 107 or 108. Little is known with certainty of his life and history, and even the few facts recorded of him by Eusebius and other early ecclesiastical writers, have been regarded with suspicion by recent critics. But there seems to be no adequate reason to doubt that he was a disciple either of St. John or St. Peter, or both; that he was one of the earliest bishops of Antioch—either the second or third; and that he continued to preside over that important church till the persecution under Trajan, when he was condemned to be thrown to the beasts at Rome. It may admit of a doubt whether it was the Emperor Trajan himself who adjudged him to that doom, and whether other circumstances mentioned in his Acta Martyrii are authentic; for that document was unknown to Eusebius, and was undoubtedly the product of an age long subsequent to Ignatius' own times. On his way from Antioch to Rome he wrote several epistles—one addressed to Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, and others addressed to different churches—in which he exhorted them to constancy in the faith in the midst of persecutions, and to vigilance in guarding the truth against the corruptions of heresy. But neither the number nor the genuine text of these famous epistles has yet been settled to the satisfaction of scholars and historians. Fifteen letters in all, bearing the name of Ignatius, have descended to our times. Three of these exist only in a Latin form, and are unanimously rejected as spurious. Other five are also generally rejected, although existing in a Greek recension as well as in a Latin and Armenian translation. But the remaining seven epistles—those addressed ad Magnesios, ad Trallianos, ad Philadelphenses, ad Smyrnæos, ad Ephesios, ad Romanos, ad Polycarpum—have exercised for three centuries, and still continue to exercise, the acumen, and no less the candour, of theological and ecclesiastical critics. These have come down to us in two different Greek recensions, distinguished from each other as the longer and the shorter—the one first published in 1557 by Pacæus, and the other by Archbishop Usher in 1644. The question arises, which of these two recensions exhibits the authentic text? Is the longer recension an interpolation of the shorter, made in the interest of episcopacy? or is the shorter recension an abridgement of the longer, made in the interest of presbyterianism? Ecclesiastical prejudices and passions have mingled in the strife, and the battle waged in the seventeenth century between Blondel, Daillé, and Owen on the one side, and Hammond and Pearson on the other, has been fought over again upon a new occasion in our own day. This occasion was the discovery and publication by Dr. Cureton of a very ancient Syriac translation of three of the epistles—those to Polycarp, to the Ephesians, and to the Romans—which he holds to be a faithful version of the original text of Ignatius, and a conclusive proof that the original number of his epistles did not exceed these three, and that their text was still shorter and simpler than that of even the shorter Greek recension. Dr. Cureton's views have been supported and combated with equal ardour, both in this country and in Germany; and the question, which is one of great importance in its bearing upon the history of the primitive church, is still sub judice.—P. L.
IGNATIUS (Saint), Patriarch of Constantinople, was born in 798, and was the son of Michael Rangabe, emperor of Constantinople, and Procopia, daughter of the emperor Nicephorus. After the murder of his father, Ignatius was cruelly mutilated by Leo the Armenian, to prevent any probability of his succession to the throne; and at the age of fourteen was sent to the monastery of Satyra, of which he was ultimately chosen abbot. In 846 he was elected to the patriarchate of Constantinople. His refusal to admit to the communion Cæsar Bardas, who had been guilty of incest, drew down upon him the anger of that monarch. Ignatius was deposed from his office, and banished to the island of Terebintha; and Photius, captain of the guards and principal secretary to the emperor, was elected in his room. Ignatius, in spite of the most shocking tortures, firmly asserted his rights, and appealed for protection to the Roman pontiff, Nicholas I., who assembling a council at Rome in 862, pronounced the election of Photius illegal. Photius, however, refused to submit to the authority of the pope; and, with the aid of the court, succeeded in retaining his office until the downfall of his patron Bardas. Basil, the Macedonian, then restored Ignatius to his office. The venerable patriarch died in 878.—J. T.
IGNATIUS. See Loyola.
IGOR, only son of Rurik the founder of the Russian monarchy, was born about 875, and ascended the throne in 912. In 941 he conceived the idea—an idea that seems to have been ever since hereditary in his race—of marching upon Constantinople. After sacking the neighbourhood of the city, he was surprised
