the victory of Narva. In 1707 he left Charles, and was appointed governor of Scania. In 1710 he routed the Danes near Helsingborg; but in the following year he fell in with the Danish fleet, by which he was attacked, and more than thirty of the Swedish vessels were lost. Afterwards he took Rostock, and in 1712 achieved the victory of Gadebusch, taking four thousand prisoners and various trophies. He then led the army into Holstein, burnt Altona, and was finally taken prisoner at Tonningen, where his army was hemmed in by the combined Danish, Saxon, and Russian forces. He died at Copenhagen in 1717, and was buried in that city with military honours.—W. J. P.
STENO, Nicholas, a Danish anatomist, was born at Copenhagen in 1638. He was a pupil of Bartholine. He discovered and described, in 1662, the duct of the parotid gland, which has since borne his name. Blasius, however, claims the discovery, affirming in a letter to Bartholine that he pointed out the duct to Steno. It would, at least, appear that Blasius had no idea of its function. Steno also seems to have been the first to recognize and describe the muscular structure of the pharynx. He went to Paris in 1661, where he taught in conjunction with Thevenot. He there pointed out the best way to examine the structure of the brain, by tracing its fibres. He afterwards went to Florence, and embraced the Roman catholic faith. Christian V. invited him to occupy the anatomical chair at Copenhagen. He was there charged by the protestants with apostasy, on which he returned to Florence, relinquished the study of anatomy, and became a priest. In 1677 Innocent XI. named him bishop (in partibus) of Titopolis and vicar apostolic of the north of Europe. He died 25th November, 1687. Amongst his anatomical writings are—"Observationes Anatomicæ," Leyden, 1662; "De Musculis et Glandulis," 4to, Copenhagen, 1664; "Discours sur l'Anatomie du cerveau," 12mo, Paris, 1669; "Observationes Anatomiæ ova viviparorum spectantes."—F. C. W.
STEPHANUS, Byzantinus, the author of a dictionary of ancient geography, is a writer whose date cannot be ascertained with certainty. It is known, however, that he lived some time between 400 and 700, and that he was a native of Byzantium. The original work is, with the exception of some valuable fragments, unhappily lost, and what we now possess is only an epitome made by a Greek named Hermolaus, under Justinian II. Stephanus was a grammarian, and his main object was apparently to trace the origin of the names of countries and cities, rather than to compose a geographical dictionary. He embodied, however, in the work so many extracts from ancient authors, now irrecoverably lost, and so large a fund of historical, topographical, and antiquarian knowledge, that the loss of the original dictionary is deeply to be regretted. The epitome which we possess is itself a bulky volume, and though badly arranged, and exhibiting obvious marks of ignorance and carelessness, has considerable value for students of ancient history. The best edition is that by Westermann, Leipsic, 1839.—G.
STEPHEN, the official name of the following popes:—
Stephen I., Bishop of Rome, filled the see from 253 till 257. He had a dispute with Cyprian respecting the baptizing of heretics. Refusing to hold communion with the christians in Africa and Asia Minor because of their opinion on this point, he went to an unwarrantable extreme. He suffered martyrdom in 257, and is reverenced as a saint in the catholic church.
Stephen II., became pope in 752. Aistulph, king of the Lombards, having got possession of the Grecian provinces in Italy, the exarchate of Ravenna, and the Pentapolis, endeavoured to obtain possession of Rome, or at least required the inhabitants of the capital and its duchy to pay him a capitation tax as their sovereign. Under these circumstances Stephen applied for help to his patron, Pepin, king of the Franks. After the latter had sent two legates to Aistulph to prevail upon him to desist, and their message had proved fruitless, Stephen went to France with the returning legates, where he crowned and anointed the king and his two sons. In 754 Pepin marched an army across the Alps, defeated Aistulph, and compelled him to give up Ravenna, with the exarchate, the Pentapolis, and all that he had plundered; but, in the following year the Lombard king marched to Rome, ravaged the surrounding country, and laid siege to the capital. In compliance with Stephen's urgent solicitations Pepin repaired to Italy, defeated Aistulph, besieged him in Pavia, and compelled him to keep his promise by delivering up the exarchate and Pentapolis. These Grecian provinces were bestowed on St. Peter and his church; hence the pope intrusted the administration of the exarchate to the archbishop of Ravenna. Pepin thus laid the foundation of the pope's temporal power. Aistulph was succeeded as king of the Lombards by Desiderius; but when Ratchis, Aistulph's brother, though a monk, aspired to the throne, Stephen ordered the latter to return to his convent. This pope died in 757.
Stephen III., Pope, was elevated to the see of Rome in 768. He assembled a council in the Lateran, at which the supporters of Constantine, a layman who had thrust himself into the papal chair after the death of Paul I., were degraded. But another insurrection broke out, in quelling which Stephen was assisted by Desiderius, king of the Lombards. When the matrimonial alliance was arranged between Pepin's two sons—Charles and Carlomann—and two daughters of Desiderius, Stephen wrote a letter to the former strongly disapproving of the match, and threatening them with excommunication if they persisted; Charles, however, did marry a daughter of Desiderius. Towards the end of his pontificate Stephen was at variance with the king of the Lombards, who got and kept possession of part of the Ravenna exarchate. At the synod at Rome, held in 769, Stephen confirmed anew the worship of images, reliques, and saints, as well as of Mary. He died in 772.
Stephen IV., Pope, was elevated to the see of St. Peter in 816. He went to France to confer with St. Louis the Pious, and died soon after his return to Rome, in the seventh month of his pontificate, 817.
Stephen V., Pope, elected in 885. He had been consecrated by John, bishop of Pavia; but Charles the Fat wanted to depose him because he had not waited for his approval. The emperor, however, was appeased by Stephen's sending attestations of his being chosen according to the recognized forms. After Charles had been deposed and his monarchy divided, the pope took the side of Guido, duke of Spoleto, against Berengarius of Friuli in their dispute about the dominion of Italy; and crowned the former at Rome in February, 891. He died in 891. Stephen V. was of a generous and benevolent disposition, as was shown by his conduct to the poor of Rome after his accession.
Stephen VI., Pope, 896, became entangled in the Italian dispute then raging. In it he was under the influence of the leading Romans and Tuscans, on the side of Guido. He caused the body of his predecessor Formosus to be disinterred, stripped of the pontifical robes, and thrown into a common grave among laymen. By the adherents of Formosus Stephen was thrown into prison, and strangled in 897.
Stephen VII., Pope, from 928-30. Marozia and her husband Guido then ruled in Rome, and it is thought that they had put two popes to death. Stephen VII. must have been entirely under their influence. No particulars of his reign are known.
Stephen VIII., 939, is said to have been a relation of Otho I. Alberic, son of Marozia, ruled Rome in his day. In a popular tumult of the Romans he was roughly used, and crippled for the rest of his life. Stephen died in 942.
Stephen IX., Pope, 1057, was brother of Godfrey, duke of Tuscany, abbot of Monte Casino, and cardinal. Following Hildebrand's advice, he sent two legates to Milan to enforce the decrees respecting celibacy. He issued decrees against simony, enforced a more rigid discipline in his former monastery of St. Casius, exempted the clergy from the jurisdiction of civil courts, and from paying tribute to laymen. It would seem that he had a plan to create a national empire in Italy by crowning his brother Godfrey king. But death prevented the carrying out of the scheme. He caused the Romans to swear to wait for the return of Hildebrand from Germany before they chose his own successor, but they did not abide by their oath. The separation of the Greek church from the Roman took place in his time. Stephen died at Florence in 1058.
Those who make ten popes of the name of Stephen make Stephen II. the successor of Zacharias. As, however, he died three days after his election, without being consecrated, he has been omitted in the above series.—S. D.
STEPHEN or STEPHAN is the name of five kings of Hungary:—Saint Stephen, so called from having been the first christian king of his people, was the son of Geysa, the fourth duke of Hungary, and a remote descendant of Attila. Stephen who bore the name of Vaik previous to his baptism, was intrusted to the care of Adelbert, archbishop of Prague, for his education. On succeeding to his father's throne, about the year 1000, he assumed the regal title, and applied to Pope Sylvester II. for
