breaking out of the revolution of La Granja. Toreño again fled to England, but he shortly afterwards returned to defend himself in the cortes against a charge of corruption. The revolution of Barcelona in 1842 again drove him into exile; and after a tour in Italy and Germany, he died at Paris.—F. M. W.
TORFAEUS or TORMODUS, more properly Thormod Torfesen, was a native of Iceland, and born about 1638. In 1654 he went to the university of Copenhagen. His scholarship subsequently procured for him the appointment by King Frederick III. of interpreter of Icelandic manuscripts; and it was he who materially aided in gathering the noble collection of ancient Scandinavian literature preserved in the royal library of the Danish capital. In 1682 Christian V. nominated him royal historiographer, a post he retained till his death in 1719. Torfaeus wrote several learned works of much interest and importance on early Scandinavian history, among which we may specify as chiefly valuable, his "Series Dynastarum et Regum Daniæ a Skialdo ad Gormum Grandovem," and his "Historia Rerum Norvegiearum ad Annum 1387."—J. J.
TORINUS, Albanus. See Thorer.
TORNIELLI, Agostino, biblical historian; born at Novara, 1543; died in Milan, 1622. He composed "Annals of the Old Testament," highly approved of by S. Carlo Borromeo.—C. G. R.
TORPORLEY, Nathaniel, an English mathematician, was born about 1573, and died in April, 1632. He studied at Christ Church college, Oxford, with some distinction. He lived for a time in France, and is said to have acted as amanuensis to Vieta. In 1602 he published in London "Diclides Cœlometricæ, seu Valvæ Universales." It contains a rule for solving spherical triangles very nearly approaching to John Napier's well-known rule of the "circular parts."—W. J. M. R.
TORQUEMADA, Tomas de, founder of the Spanish inquisition, a native of Old Castile (born in 1420), and subsequently prior of Santa Cruz in Segovia. He was appointed confessor to Queen Isabella in her early years, and, it is said, extorted from her a vow that if she should ever come to the throne, she would devote herself to the extirpation of heresy. It was not, however, without a struggle against her better nature that, when seated on the throne, Isabella, yielding to the solicitations of her husband and the clergy surrounding her, solicited from the pope, Sixtus IV., a bull for the introduction of the holy office into Spain, and on the 17th of September, 1480, her dominican monks were appointed as inquisitors; but owing to the sturdy opposition of the Castilians the institution gained no footing for some years. Its severity was mainly directed against the Jews and those Castilian nobles whose wealth excited the cupidity of the inquisitors. By two briefs (dated 2nd August and 1st October, 1483) Torquemada was invested with full powers to frame a new constitution for the holy office. Llorente computes that, during the eighteen years of Torquemada's ministry, there were no less than ten thousand two hundred and twenty heretics burnt, six thousand eight hundred and sixty condemned and burnt in effigy, and ninety-seven thousand three hundred and twenty-one "reconciled" by other punishments. The odium excited by these severities was such that Torquemada was thrice obliged to send an agent to Rome to defend himself; and at length (1494) Alexander VI., under pretext of relieving the infirmities of his great age, appointed four coadjutors to share the duties of the holy office with him. He was tormented by constant fears lest vengeance for his atrocities should overtake him.—F. M. W.
TORRE, Filippo del, antiquary, and bishop of Adria; born at Cividale in the Friulì, 1657; died, 1717. He was author of "Monumenta Veteris Antii," published in his lifetime, and received with great applause; and of other works on various subjects, printed and in manuscript.—C. G. R.
TORRICELLI, Evangelista, an eminent Italian physicist, was born at Piancaldoli on the 15th of October, 1608, and died at Florence on the 25th of October, 1647. He was brought up at Faenza by his uncle, an ecclesiastic, who sent him to Rome about 1628, in order that he might study mathematics and physics under Galileo's pupil, Castelli. He there learned the true principles of the mechanics of moving bodies, discovered not long before by Galileo, and applied them to various important questions. He demonstrated the most important properties of the common centre of gravity of a system of connected bodies, and discovered the law of the flow of fluids out of orifices, which is the foundation of the whole science of hydraulics. He possessed much skill in pure mathematics, and proved it by discovering the area of the cycloid. After passing thirteen years at Rome he went, in 1641, to Florence by the invitation of his master, Galileo, who died three months after his arrival. Torricelli was then appointed professor of mathematics at Florence, where he passed the few remaining years of his life. His greatest scientific achievement was one of the most important inventions that ever has been made—that of the barometer, in 1643. It is commemorated by the term, "Torricellian vacuum," applied to the space above the mercury. Galileo had previously shown that a column of water cannot be raised by suction higher than from thirty to thirty-four feet. Torricelli came to the conclusion, that by using a fluid heavier than water, such as mercury, the column would be proportionately reduced in height; verified that conclusion by experiment; and showed how the height of that column could be used to measure the pressure of the atmosphere. He was noted for a candid and generous temper, and a disposition to do justice at all times to the claims of other scientific inquirers. Many of his scientific MSS. are said to be still preserved, unpublished, at Florence.—W. J. M. R.
TORRIGIANO, Pietro, an eminent Italian sculptor, was born at Florence about 1470. Torrigiano was one of the remarkable cluster of youths, whom Lorenzo the Magnificent assembled in the garden of his palace to draw and model from the antique under Bertoldo. Michelangelo was also of the number, and his superiority so excited the animosity of Torrigiano, who was three or four years his elder, and of a large and powerful frame and ungovernable temper, that he one day struck Michelangelo so violent a blow on the face as to crush his nose, and thus disfigure him for life. Lorenzo was much incensed at this brutality, and Torrigiano was obliged to flee from Florence. He went to Rome, where he found employment in making decorations in stucco, but with his usual impetuosity, he suddenly enlisted as a soldier, and served for some time under Vitelli and Piero de' Medici. He then resumed his profession, his chief occupation being the making of small figures in bronze and marble for Florentine merchants. By some of these he was persuaded to come to England, and here he met with great encouragement. He was employed to make among other things the tomb of the countess of Richmond, mother of Henry VII.; but his greatest work here, and the most important now remaining by him, was the tomb of Henry VII. and his queen in Westminster abbey, on which he was engaged for several years, 1512-19. Torrigiano seems to have got into many disputes with "the English bears," as he called them; and though treated by the king, Henry VIII., with great munificence, he left without completing all his commissions. He returned to Italy, but he was tempted to proceed to Spain, in the hope of being employed on the sepulchre of Ferdinand and Isabella. He did not succeed in this, but he met with much private patronage. Among other things he modelled a crucifix, which was regarded as the finest work of the kind in Spain. But his career was speedily brought to a tragic close. For a Spanish grandee, the duke of Arcos, he executed a very beautiful statue of the Virgin with the Child in her arms. The payment for it, as sent to Torrigiano's house, was in maravedis, a coin to which he was unaccustomed; and when he learned from a Florentine friend that the amount in Italian money was under thirty ducats, he was so enraged that he hastened to the spot where the statue was placed, and shattered it into fragments. The duke denounced Torrigiano to the inquisition. He was arraigned before that terrible tribunal for sacrilege in breaking the image, and his residence in England and employment under Henry VIII. added the suspicion of heresy. After repeated examinations, finding that his condemnation was certain, he refused to take food, and died in the prison of the inquisition of voluntary starvation in 1522. The fragments of the broken statue were carefully preserved and put together, and a cast of it is still popular in the Seville plaster shops under the title of "La Mano a la teta."—J. T—e.
TORRIJOS, José Maria, a Spanish general, was born at Madrid 20th May, 1791, and became one of the pages to Charles IV. At the age of sixteen he had attained the rank of captain, and in the conflict of the 2nd of May, 1808, he took a conspicuous part. In 1811 he was made a colonel, and distinguished himself at the battle of Vittoria. He was offered a command against the South American insurgents, which he declined. In 1817 he was, for some cause not explained, imprisoned by the inquisition, but he was set free by the revolution of 1820, and made captain-general of Valencia. The counter-revolution of
