Kostomaroff, Nicholas (1817–1885), a brilliant Russian historian, the founder of the Federalist school in the study of Russian history.
Lamarck, Jean Baptiste (1744–1829), French naturalist. He made an attempt at giving a complete classification of both the animals and plants. Having constructed a complete system, which was based on the variability of the animal and vegetable species ("Philosophie Zoologique"), he must be considered as the chief forerunner of Darwin. He explained the variation of organisms by their capacity to accommodate themselves to their surroundings, as also by their use or disuse of their different organs—an idea which was bitterly combatted by Cuvier.
Laplace, Pierre (1749–1827), one of the greatest astronomers and mathematicians of all ages. His chief works are: "Exposition of a System of the Universe," in which he explained the probable, purely physical origin of our solar system out of a mass of incandescent gaseous matter; and "Treatise of Celestial Mechanics." He solved all problems of astronomy purely by a physical analysis.
Lavoisier, Antoine (1743–1794), great French founder of chemistry. Was the first to decompose water into its component elements, oxygen and hydrogen. Studied the theory of burning, of heat, and of fermentation. Was the first to prove the indestructibility of matter by experiment. Chief work: "Traité élémentaire de Chimie" (1789).
Lewes, George Henry (1817–1878), English physiologist and philosopher, who treated the problems of mind on a physiological basis, and was possessed of an admirable gift for popular exposition of scientific matter. Chief works: "Problems of Life and Mind" (which includes a volume given to "The Physical Basis of Mind"), "History of Philosophy," and "Physiology of Common Life."
Littré, Maximilien Emile (1801–1881), French philosopher and philologist. Was a warm follower of Auguste Comte’s Positive philosophy, and did much to popularise it. Compiled the great monumental dictionary of the French language.
Lomonósoff, Mikhail (1711–1765), Russian writer in most varied branches. Author of odes, a Russian grammar, works of history, and several important works on physics, mineralogy, chemistry, and physical geography. In one of these last (on the Arctic regions) he expressed very definitely the mechanical theory of heat.
Lyell, Charles (1797–1875), renowned English geologist. His great work, "Principles of Geology," which has gone through many editions, was epoch-making, as it established beyond doubt, contrarily to the theories then current, the slow and gradual modifications of the earth's surface, through the accumulation of agencies now at work. He thus prepared the mind to accept the theory of evolution, advocated later on by Darwin. His work, "Antiquity of Man," published in 1863, established the great antiquity of the first human-like beings, and the fact of a Quaternary Glacial Period.
