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134 BOTANY number of their distinct stigmata, as mono-, di-, &c., gynia, ; the 14th by the seed (when cover- ed, angiosperma ; when naked, gymnosper- ma) ; the 15th by the form of the fruit, sili- quosa (podded), and siliculosa (with silicles) ; the 16th, 17th, 18th, and 20th by the absolute number of their stamens ; the 21st and 22d by the absolute number of the stamens and their adherence (monadelphia, syrigenesia, gynan- dria) ; the 23d by the distribution of the her- maphrodite or unisexual flowers (man-, di-, triacia). The 24th class, cryptogamia (secret marriage), has four orders, filices (ferns), rnuid (mosses), alga (seaweeds), and fungi (mushrooms). The 19th, syngenesia, has five orders: flowers all fertile, hermaphrodite (po- lygamia equalis); flowers radiate, disk with hermaphrodite florets, ray with pistillate (poly- iuperflua) ; disk with fertile hermaphrodite florets, ray with barren pistillate (polyfrwtra- nea) ; disk with barren hermaphrodite florets, ray with fertile pistillate (polynecessaria) ; each floret with its own calyx besides the com- mon perianth (polysegregata), and also sepa- rated flowers, as the lobelia (monogamia). This artificial system is, then, founded on the dif- ferences, not on the similarities of plants, and does not tend to impart a knowledge of the structure of a plant beyond its stamens and pistils. Linnaaus himself felt its deficiencies, and tried to work out what is called a natural system, which he declared to be the primum et ultimum in botanicu desideratum. Bernard de Jussieu, in his catalogues of the gardens of the Trianon, adopted an arrangement of plants according to their natural affinities ; and as he never published his method, it was left for his nephew Antoine Laurent (1748-1836) to give to the world the first natural system in his Genera Plantarum secundum Ordines Natu- rales disposita (Paris, 1789), a work contain- ing descriptions of almost 20,000 species, and celebrated as a monument of wonderful saga- city and profound research, as well as for the eloquence and precision of its style. Various modifications of Jnssieu's system have been adopted by succeeding botanists. Among them three methods deserve a more special mention, as the works in which they have been adopted are in constant use. De Oandolle's Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Ve- getabilis, a description of all known species of plants, commenced in 1824 and now nearly completed, adopts the descending series, as it is called ; that is, those plants which are con- sidered most complete in their organization are first described, and the series ends in the lower cryptogams. The Pro&romm is so much used by all working botanists that a brief synopsis of the arrangement therein followed may be given. The primary divisions are vasculares and celhilares. Vasculares or cotyledons are furnished with cellular tissue and vessels, and their embryo has one or more cotyledons. This includes : I. Exogence or dicotyledons, in which the vessels are arranged in concentric layers, the youngest outside, and the embryo has opposite or verticillate cotyledons ; II. Endogence or monocotyledons, in which the vessels are arranged in bundles, the youngest being in the middle of the trunk, while the embryo has a solitary or alternate cotyledons. The exogens are divided into dichlamydew, with calyx and corolla distinct, and monochlamydea, where the calyx and corolla form only one peri- anth. ' The dichlamyds are again divided into the thalamiftorce, in which the petals are dis- tinct, inverted on the receptacle; the calyci- florce, in which the petals are free or more or less united, always perigynons or inserted on the calyx ; and the corolliflora, in which the petals are united into a hypogynous corolla, or not attached to the calyx. Cellulares or aco- tyledona are composed of cellular tissue only, and have no proper vessels, while the embryo has no cotyledons. This division includes the foliaccte or plants which have leaf-like expan- sions and known sexes ; and the aphylloe, or plants which have neither leaf-like expansions nor (as was supposed when the method was published) sexes. John Lindley, in his " Ve- getable Kingdom " (1846 ; 3d ed., 1853), adopts the ascending series. The number of orders is 303, and his classes are as follows : Flowcrless Plants Cryptogams. I. Tliallogens. Stem and leaves Indistinguishable. II. Acrogem. Stem and leaves distinguishable. Flowering Plants Phanerogams. III. Rhizogens, Fructification springing from a tballus. Fructification proceeding from a stem, t Wood of stem youngest in the centre ; cotyledon single. IV. Endog&ns. Leaves parallel-veined, permanent ; wood of stem always confused. V. Dictyogens. Leaves net-veined, deciduous; wood of stem, when perennial, arranged in a circle with a central pith. J Wood of stem youngest on the circumference, always con- centric ; cotyledons two or more. VI. Gymnogens. Seeds quite naked. VII. Exogens. Seeds enclosed in seed vessels. The alliances proposed by Lindley are as fol- lows: Algales, ex. seaweeds; fungales, ex. mushrooms ; lichenales, ex. lichens ; mvscales, ex. urn mosses ; lycopodales, ex. club mosses ; filicales, ex. ferns ; glumalei, ex. grasses ; ara- les, ex. arads ; pair/idles, ex. palms ; hydrales, ex. naiads ; narcissales, ex. amaryllis ; amoma- les, ex. maranta ; orchidales, ex. orchis ; xyri- dales, ex. spiderwort; jimcales, ex. bulrush; liliales, ex. lily ; alismales, ex. alisma ; amen- tales, ex. willow ; urticales, ex. nettle ; evphor- biales, ex. spurge; quercalei, ex. oak; garry- ales, ex. garrya ; menupermales, ex. moonseed ; cvcurbitales. ex. melon ; papayales, ex. papaw ; violates, ex. violet; cistales, ex. rock rose ; mal- vales, ex. mallow ; sapindales, ex. soapwort ; guttiferales, ex. clusia; nymphnles, ex. water lily; ranales, ex. buttercup; lierlterales, ex. berberry ; ericales, ex. heath ; rulales, ex. orange ; geraniales, ex. cranesbill ; silenales, ex. pink ; chenopodahs, ex. amaranth ; piper- ales, ex. pepper ; ficoidales, ex. mesembryanthe- mum ; dap/males, ex. laurel ; rosales, ex. apple ; saxifragales, ex. saxifrage; rfiamnales, ex. buckthorn; gentianales, ex. gentian ; solanales,