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BREST LITOVSKI BRETH. OF CHE. SCHOOLS 255 naval school, cabinet of natural history, botan- ical garden, communal college, public library, and marine library, with 27,000 volumes. Brest was of some importance during the middle ages. The old castle belonging to the dukes of Brittany fell into the possession of the Eng- lish, and sustained a long siege by the French under Duguesclin and Clisson. In 1395 it was surrendered by Richard II. in consideration of 12,000 crowns. It was made a fortified port by Richelieu in 1631, and the fortifications were modernized by Vauban in 1680-'88. In 1694 a combined English and Dutch fleet ap- peared in the roadstead and disembarked a strong force, hoping to take the fortifications by surprise ; but a storm dispersed the fleet, and most of the land force were killed. In 1757 an English fleet of 19 vessels approached the mouth of- the Goulet, and 20,000 men were landed, but made no attack. Since that time Brest has never been seriously threatened by an enemy; but it was blockaded in 1794 by Admiral Howe, who won a great naval victory in its neighborhood (June 1). BREST LITOVSKI (Pol. Brze6 LitewsTci), a for- tified town of Russia, in the government and 110 m. S. of Grodno, on the right bank of the river Bug; pop. in 1867, 22,793, of whom one half were Jews. It was formerly the capital of a Lithuanian palatinate, and contains an old cas- tle, a Jewish high school, and a military school, and has a considerable transit trade. In 1794 Suvaroff here gained a victory over the Poles. liUi: r(.K. See BBITTANY. BRETHREN, Bohemian. See BOHEMIAN BBETH- EEN. BRETHREN, Plymouth. See PLYMOUTH BBETH- BEN. BRETHREN, White, a sect of the 15th cen- tury, who first appeared in the Italian Alps about 1399, and were headed by a priest, prob- ably a Spaniard, although some say that he was a Provengal, others that he was a Scotchman. He claimed to be the prophet Elias. He and his followers were arrayed in white, and carried large crucifixes from which a bloody sweat ap- peared to exude. He aiBrmed that it was his mission to announce the speedy destruction of the world by an earthquake. He commenced his ministrations in Lombardy, and thence ex- tended them to the Ligurian Alps. His success was at first great. He entered Genoa at the head of 5,000 followers, and the excitement spread to Lucca, Pisa, and Florence. Their leader prescribed and practised mortification and rigorous penances, and endeavored to ef- fect a renewal of the crusades. But Pope Boniface IX. caused him to be apprehended and burnt at the stake, whereupon his follow- ers dispersed, and the sect became extinct, having existed only a few months. BRETHREN AND CLERKS OF THE COMMON LIFE (Fratre et Clerici Vita Communw), a re- ligious order established in the Netherlands near the close of the 14th century, by Gerhard do Groot. It was divided into two classes, the 120 TOL. in. 17 lettered and the illiterate. The first class was mainly composed of the clergy, who gave them- selves to study and copying books, while the second class engaged in manual labor. They adopted the rule of St. Augustine, and gave up their property to the common use. Their vows were not considered binding for life. They were sanctioned by the council of Constance, and Luther and Melanchthon speak favorably of them. The flourishing period of the order was from 1400 to 1500, most of their houses being built between 1425 and 1451 ; they had in all from 30 to 50 establishments. By the middle of the 17th century the order became extinct, some of the brethren becoming Protes- tants, while some were absorbed by the Jesuits and other Roman Catholic orders. This order is frequently confounded with the Beguins and Lollards. BRETHREN AND SISTERS OF THE FREE SPIRIT, or Spiritualists. See BEGHARDS. BRETHREN OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS, an order established at Rheims by the abbe de La Salle in 1679, and sanctioned by Benedict XIII. in 1725, six years after the death of the founder. The object of the order was to pro- vide instruction for the poorer classes. The members take upon themselves the vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience. These vows are first taken for three years only, and then renewed for life by those who desire to remain in the order. Their costume is a coarse black cassock, and a small collar or band around the neck, for the house, and a hooded cloak and a wide hat for outdoor purposes. Their diet is of the simplest kind. Their teaching is mainly rudimentary, although in some of their schools Latin and the higher mathematics form part of the course. Priests may be admitted to the order, but no member may become a priest, and lest they should aspire to that dignity, the brethren are forbidden to study Latin until reaching the age of 30. In 1688 the order was introduced into Paris. In 1792 they refused to take the oath to the civil constitution, and were driven from their houses and debarred the exercise of their functions. At the peace of 1801 they returned to their schools, and soon spread themselves again over France, whence they extended into Italy, Corsica, Cay- enne, Belgium, and Algiers. In 1830, in the revolution of July, the persecution which fell upon the Jesuits also visited them. The aid of government was withdrawn. At that epoch they opened evening schools for adults, where- in they received and taught mechanics and la- borers who had no time to devote to learning in the day. The chief house of the congrega- tion is at Paris, rue Oudinot, and has generally from 400 to 500 brethren. In 1868 the con- gregation had upward of 10,000 brethren, and instructed in France alone more than 300,000 pupils. In the United States in the same year 323 brethren instructed about 15,000 pupils: Besides the Brethren of the Christian Schools founded by La Salle, there are a number of othr