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CARPENTER CARPET 19 tions of the Vital and Physical Forces," in the ' Philosophical Transactions" for 1850. 2. The general doctrine that the truly vital ope- rations of the animal as well as the vegetable organism are performed by the agency of un- transformed cells, which was first developed in an "Essay on the Origin and Functions of Cells," published in the "British and Foreign Medical Review " for 1843. 3. The organic structure of the shells of mollusca, echinoder- inata, and Crustacea, of which a full account is contained in the " Reports of the British Asso- ciation " for 1844 and 1847. 4. The applica- tion of Von Baer's law of development from the general to the special to the interpretation of the succession of organic forms presented in geological time. 5. The relation between the two methods of reproduction, that by gemma- tion and that by sexual union, with the appli- cation of this doctrine to the phenomena of the so-called "alternations of generations;" first developed in the "British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review " for 1848 and 1849. 6. The relation between the different methods of sexual reproduction in plants ; first developed in the same periodical for 1849. 7. The application of the doctrine of reflex action to the nervous system of invertebrata, espe- cially articulated animals; first developed in the author's prize thesis, published in 1839. 8. The functional relations of the sensory ganglia to the spinal cord on the one hand, and to the cerebral hemispheres on the other. In 1856 Dr. Carpenter published a work " On the Mi- croscope, its Revelations and its Uses," in which Le displayed the same industry, accuracy, and impartiality as in his other writings. Pie has also published several interesting papers on the fossil forms of the family of foraminifera, and " An Introduction to the Study of the Fora- minifera." He has been professor of medical jurisprudence in University college, London ; lecturer on general anatomy and physiology at the London hospital and school of medicine ; and registrar to the university of London. In 1849 he gained the prize of 100 guineas offered for the best essay on the subject of " Alcoholic Liquors." This essay was published in 1850, and acquired great popularity among the ad- vocates of total abstinence. He was editor for many years of the "British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review," and while thus occupied with writing he was also much engaged in lecturing. In 1872 he was pres- ident of the British association for the ad- vancement of science. Dr. Carpenter's more recent labors have been directed to the subject of submarine animal life, and the temperature and constitution of the oceanic waters at various depths, as indicated by the result of deep-sea dredgings. In 1868 he made an expedition, in a government vessel fitted for this purpose, to the waters between the north of Scotland and the Faroe islands ; in 1869 an expedition to the Atlantic ocean south and west of Ireland, and a second to the neighborhood of the Faroe islands; and he has since given a report of similar investigations in the waters of the Atlantic between Great Britain and Portu- gal, and in those of the Mediterranean. The results of these observations show that sub- marine animal life does not, as was formerly supposed, diminish rapidly at the depth of 100 fathoms, and nearly disappear at 300, but that it is abundant at much greater depths ; living mollusks, crustaceans, and protozoa having been brought up by dredging from depths va- rying from 450 to 2,435 fathoms. He also found that in the North Atlantic, between the Hebrides and the Faroe islands, at from 400 to 550 fathoms' depth, there are warm and cold areas, the former having a minimum tempera- ture of from 46 to 49 F., the latter from 32 to 33f ; while the surface temperature is near- ly the same in both, namely, from 50 to 52. The deep waters of the Mediterranean, on the other hand, were found to have nearly a uniform temperature throughout, namely, be- tween 54 and 56^ F. The saltness and den- sity of the waters of the Mediterranean, also, were found to be greatest near the bottom, while in the Atlantic they are greatest at or near the surface. CARPENTRAS (anc. Carpentoracte), a city of France, in the department of Vaucluse, on the left bank of the Auzon, at the foot of Mont Ventoux, 15 m. N. E. of Avignon; pop. in 1866, 10,848. It is surrounded by high walls and beautiful walks, has a large Gothic cathe- dral with a spire of the age of Charlemagne, a departmental college, and a public library with 28,000 volumes and many valuable manu- scripts. Under the Romans Carpentoracte was an important town of Gallia Narbonensis. Under Pope Clement V. in 1313 it was the seat of the holy see, to which with Avignon it belonged till 1791. From the 3d century till 1801 it was the seat of a bishopric. CARPET, a sort of thick cloth, used princi- pally for covering the floors of apartments. In its place, at a very early period, straw, rushes, and other coarse materials were used. Improving upon this, the rushes were plaited into matting, which, though homely enough in appearance, served to promote warmth and comfort. In England, where wool was ob- tained in abundance, a kind of coarse woollen cloth was often seen upon the floors of the gentry. As late as the time of Queen Mary rushes were strewn on the floor of her presence chamber, though carpets had long before been introduced from the East. In Egypt their manufacture is traced back to a very remote period ; and in Persia and other Asiatic coun- tries the art, practised by the hand, had at- tained a high degree of excellence long before it was known in Europe. Purple carpets of great beauty were used at the banquets of the ancient Greeks, spread beneath their couches. The Babylonians, still earlier, ornamented their fabrics with figures of men and strange devices of fabulous creatures. These were