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LUCAS LUCCA 701 (3 vols., 1826-'30), and De la reforme des pri- sons, ou de la theorie de V imprisonnement (3 vols., 1836-'8). He wrote several essays ad- vocating the abolition of capital punishment, and not long before his death addressed to the Italian statesman Mancini a communica- tion published under the title, La peine de mort et V unification penale, &c. (Paris, 1874). LUCAS, Frederick, an English journalist, born in London, March 30, 1812, died at Staines, Middlesex, Oct. 23, 1855. His family belonged to the society of Friends. His education was commenced at a Friends' school in Darlington, and continued at the London university, where he remained three years. In 1835 he began the practice of law, in which he had good suc- cess. Four years later he entered the Roman Catholic church, and published a pamphlet en- titled " Reasons for becoming a Roman Catho- lic," addressed to the society of Friends. It is a very clear and vigorous exposition of the motives which induced him to take so impor- tant a step. He founded at London the " Tab- let," a newspaper since widely known as an advocate and exponent of Catholic views, and contributed to the "Dublin Review." In 1849 he transferred the "Tablet" to Dublin, and in 1852 was returned to parliament by the county of Meath. He maintained, against the judgment of the most influential members of the Irish Roman Catholic hierarchy, the right and duty of the Irish priests to take an active part in politics. In 1854 he went to Rome for the purpose of explaining his views on the sub- ject to the pope in person ; but his impaired health compelled him to return before a deci- sion could be obtained. During his brief par- liamentary career he came to be considered as the leader of the Catholic party. LUCAS, John, an English painter, born in Lon- don, July 4, 1807, died there, April 30, 1874. He was originally an engraver in mezzotint, but in 1829 became a portrait painter. Among his works are portraits of members of the royal family, of the duke of Wellington for the uni- versity of Oxford, of Prince Albert for Ver- sailles and for the palace of Saxe-Coburg, and of many distinguished persons for the gallery of Sir Robert Peel. One of his best pictures is a portrait group representing the consulta- tion of Robert Stephenson, Brunei, and other eminent engineers previous to the floating of the last section of the tubular bridge over the Menai strait. More than 60 of his works have been engraved. LUCCA. I. A province of central Italy, bounded IS. by Massa e Carrara and Modena, E. by Florence, S. by Pisa, and W. by the Li- gurian sea; area, 576 sq. m. ; pop. in 1872-, 280,399. It is a mountainous district, crossed in the east by the Apennines, and with only one river, the Serchio, which is not deep enough for navigation. Near the sea the land is low and marshy. The soil is not natural- ly fertile, but is highly cultivated, and yields principally olives, chestnuts, figs, almonds, and citrons. Much attention has recently been giv- en to the culture of the mulberry, but the grain produce is still below the amount needed for home consumption. II. A city, capital of the province, in a fertile valley watered by the Serchio, 10 m. N". E. of Pisa, and 38 m. W. of Florence ; pop. in 1872, 68,204. The streets are well paved. The principal squares are the Piazza Ducale, Piazza S. Michele, and Piazza del Mercato. The last, which is the most remarkable, and in which the market has been held since 1839, occupies the site and preserves the form of the ancient amphithea- tre, which had two stories of 54 arches each, and could accommodate with seats nearly 11,000 spectators. The chief public buildings are the town house, the public library, the ducal palace, the Palazzo Pretorio, the Palaz- zo Mansi, and the Palazzo Borghi (now used as a pauper asylum). Adjoining the last are the so-called Scaligerian castles and a lofty tower, this palace as well as some others of Lucca having been originally intended for purposes of defence as well as for habita- tion and state. There are about 40 churches. The cathedral, dedicated to St. Martin, is of the llth century, with archiepiscopal archives abounding in ancient historical documents, adorned with paintings by Tintoretto and other masters, with statuary and other works of art by Civitali and various eminent sculptors, and with a memorial known as the " altar of Lib- erty;" a small chapel near the altar contains an ancient crucifix carved of cedar wood, fa- mous as a miraculous relic. Lucca possesses an academy of letters and sciences founded in 1817, and a number of educational and chari- table institutions. Cotton, wool, paper, and cloth manufactures contribute to the industrial activity of Lucca. The celebrated baths of Lucca are about 14 m. from the city, near the towns of Ponte a Seraglio, Bagni alia Villa, and Bernabo. The water of the springs con- tains Glauber and bitter salts, and has a temper- ature ranging between 90 and 110. Lucca (Luca) was anciently included within the lim- its of Etruria ; but as no Etruscan remains have been discovered in its neighborhood, it is very doubtful whether it was an Etruscan town. Livy mentions it as having given shelter to Sempronius when he retired before Hannibal, 218 B. 0. The town fell into the hands of the Ligurians, and became a Roman colony in 177. It became a Lombard duchy in A. D. 572, was subsequently annexed to the Frankish and the German empires, and having regained its independence, became a republic early in the 12th century. It carried on wars with Pisa and Florence, was for a time under the sway of Castracani (1316-'28), succumbed to the Pisans shortly after, was liberated from their yoke by the emperor Charles IV. in the latter part of the 14th century, again became the prey of several petty tyrants, and eventu- ally recovered its independence and formed a government, ruled by an aristocracy. An at-