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338 NEWSPAPERS Peuple, P&re Duchene, and Montague. Among the more prominent journals which have ap- peared since the suppression of the commune and the return of political affairs to the or- dinary channel, are the Republique francaise, the Radical (which was suppressed after a brief existence), and the XIX IM Siecle. In all, Paris has 791 periodicals, of which 113 are political, 90 scientific, 78 religious, 58 devoted to fashion, 42 legal, 39 financial, 14 military, 9 naval, and 8 architectural. Italian newspa- pers are traced to the early gazzette of Ven- ice of the 16th century, many volumes of which in manuscript are preserved in the Ma- gliabecchian library, while one printed copy dated 1570 is in the British museum. In more modern times the principal newspapers con- sisted at first only of those serving as official organs of the respective authorities, as the Di- ario di Roma and Gazzetta di Napoli. The Voce della Veritd, published in Modena (1831), was ultra conservative; and the Antologia, established ten years earlier in Florence, was ultra liberal. The total number of Italian newspapers in 1836 was 171 ; in 1845, 205. After the accession of Pope Pius IX. in 1846, Italy produced an enormous crop of new jour- nals, chiefly revolutionary, which were discon- tinued in 1849; and with the exception of Sardinia, the Italian press was again put under restraint until 1859-'60. The changes of those years conferred an almost complete freedom upon the whole Italian press, and called into ex- istence a great number of new political journals. In 1859 the Turin Opinione, which is still an important Italian journal, reduced its price to one sou. With the Diritto, another important paper, the Opinione was removed to Florence in 1865, on the removal of the capital to that city. Between that year and 1870 Florence remained the central point of Italian journalism, and all parties were represented there by polit- ical newspapers ; but on the second transfer of the seat of government to Rome nearly all of these again removed thither, and are now pub- lished in the new political centre. The chief of them, besides the Opinione already referred to, are the official organ, the Gazzetta ufficiale del Regno d? Italia, and L'ltalie, published in French and looked upon as the organ of the department of foreign affairs. The first regu- lar newspaper in Spain was the court journal, Diario d& Madrid, established about the middle of the 18th century. After the establishment of the liberty of the press in 1834, nearly 20 political journals were started in Madrid alone, and more than 40 were published there in 1844, the Heraldo (moderado organ) circulating 7,000 daily. Satirical and humorous papers have played an important part in the history of Spanish journalism, and many of the ablest writers are engaged in the conduct of literary, scientific, artistic, and religious papers. About 30 journals were published at the beginning of 1861 in Madrid, the most important of which were the Clamor publico and Espana; and in 1863 the total number in Spain was 279, of which 93 were devoted to special scientific or literary branches. After the political reaction of 1866 all the more influential liberal papers were suspended. Many of them were renewed in 1868, but without force or vigor, and suffer- ing constant official persecution. At this time the Diario espanol, Politica, and other jour- nals, represented the liberal party; the abso- lutist organs were the Esperanza, Pensamiento espanol, Lealtad, and several other papers; the Espanol and Espana were ministerial organs. Portuguese newspapers are confined to the or- gan of government, the Diario do Governo, and some half dozen other journals published in Lis- bon, and to a corresponding number in Oporto and other cities. German newspapers were preceded by irregular publications of news, a specimen of the oldest of which, dated in 1494, is preserved in the university library of Leipsic. Summaries of events, generally in Latin, and with such titles as Relationes Semestrales, Re- lationum Historicarum Pentaplus, &c., were frequently published at stated intervals in Ger- many during the 16th century. The first reg- ular journal was a weekly paper established in 1615 by Egenolph Emm el, a bookseller at Frankfort, and published at his own expense. In imitation of this the Frankfurter Ober- postamts-Zeitung, the oldest successful German paper, was founded in 1616 by the postmas- ter, Johann von der Birghden. Beginning as a weekly, it was many years later made a daily paper, and as such existed till 1866. This was followed by newspapers in all the leading cities of Germany, and by the middle of the 17th century they had become subject in most cases to government censorship, and generally con- tained little besides official publications. One considerable journal, Der Hamburgische Cor- respondent, was founded in 1714; but with this exception the history of the German press is unimportant until the period of the French revolution, when many political papers sprang up in Germany as elsewhere. The Vossische Zeitung, still an important journal of Berlin, and the Spener^scJie Zeitung, which held a prominent place until the year 1874, when it stopped publication, had been founded before that period, but were almost exclusively literary until the events of l789-'93. In 1798 appeared at Tubingen the Allgemeine Zeitung (now of Augsburg), destined to surpass in success and permanence all other German journals. It was founded by Gotta the publisher, and was at first called Neueste Weltkunde, but almost immediately changed to its permanent title. It suffered from repeated government persecu- tions on account of its outspoken character; and in 1799 it was transferred from Tubingen to Stuttgart, in 1803 to Ulm, and in 1824' to Augsburg, the present place of publication. Its conductors have been successively Posselt, Huber, Stegmann, Kolb and Mebold, Kolb and Altenhofer, and since Kolb's death in 1865 Altenhofer alone. After the beginning of the