In mathematics the Mohammedans made great
advances by introducing the numerals and other
modes of notation, the sine instead of the
chord, and by extending the application of al-
gebra. Astronomy was zealously cultivated in
the schools of Bagdad, Cairo, and Cordova. Ac-
cording to Ibn al-Nadbi (1040), the library at
Cairo possessed two celestial globes and si.v thou-
sand astronomical works. In the ninth century
the three sons of the librarian, Musa ibn Shakr,
calculated accurately the diameter of the earth
and the jnecession of the equinoxes. At the same
time lived al-Farghani, author of an astronomi-
cal encyclopaedia, which was translated in the
twelfth century by Johannes Hispalensis. In
the tenth century al-Battani ( Albatagnius)
jlourished, to whose name is attached the intro-
duction of trigonometrical functions, and the
observation of the obliquity of the ecliptic.
Among the astronomers whose works were trans-
lated into Latin may be mentioned Thabit ibn
Kurrah (901), Jabir ibn Allah, who in 1196 con-
structed the first observatory at Seville, and
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi. the paraphraser of Euclid.
Medicine and natural history were cultivated by
the Mohanmiedans with a like success. In the
seventh century the writings of Galen. Hip-
pocrates, Paul of Aegina, etc., were translated
from the Greek into Arabic. Ibn Abi Usaibiah
(1203-69) devotes a whole volume to the medi-
cal literature in Arabic. Among the medical
writers may be mentioned Mohammed al-Razi
(tenth century), whose works were translated
into Latin: Ali ibn Ridwan (1061): Ibn Sina
(Avicenna); Abu al-Kasim (1107), who wrote on
surgery and surgical instruments: Abd al-Malik
ibn Zuhr (1162), and Abd Allah ibn al-Baitar
(1248), whose Materia Medica had great
vogue.
History in all its forms was cultivated at an early time by the Mohammedans: several chron- icles were written in the days of the Ommiad dynasty. Persian historiography influenced the Arabs to record the events of their past life as a people: and the growing interest in the prophet and his times furnished a healthy stimulus. From the middle of the eighth century we have an uninterrupted series of historians. The ear- liest of these were Mohammed ibn Ishak (768), whose biography of Mohammed was enlarged by Ibn Hisham (821), and Mohammed al-Wakidi (823), who wrote the history of the prophet at Medina. No less than 140 titles of works writ- ten by al-Kalbi (c. 819) are mentioned, dealing largely with history and genealogy. It was a Persian, Abu Jafar al-Tabari (838-923), who produced the first universal history in Arabic, beginning with creation. A similar work was produced by Ibn al-Athir (1160-1234). Of the early historians mention must also be made of Ibn Kutaibah (892) and al-Baladhuri (892), who deals especially with the early conquests of the Arabs. In the tenth century wrote al- Hamdani (94.5). Hamzah al-Isfahani' (961). and r.l-^Iasudi (9.56), who has left us a history of civilization. Among the historians of later cen- turies mention may be made of Ibn Maskawai (1030). al-Makin (1273), Ibn al-Amid (b. 1254), al-Biruni (1308), historian of chronology and the Herodotus of India. Abu al-Fida (1331), and Ibn Khaldun (1400), the first to compose u philosophy of history. The chief historians of Spain we're Ahmad al-Dhabbi (1195), Ibn Bash-
kuwal (1182), Jlohammcd ibn al-Abbar (1259), and Ahmad al-Makkari (1631). Among the noted historians of Egypt were Abd al-Latif (1231) and al-Makrizi '(1441). More charac- teristic of Arabic historiography are the numer- ous local histories and biographical monographs jiroduced. Among the most remarkable of these are the works of Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti (1505), author of 510 works, among which were histories of Cairo and Damasctis; of Abu Ubaidah (824), autlior of 105 monographs, among which are his- tories of Mecca and Medina: of Ali ibn Asakir (1175), author of a history of Damascus in eighty volumes, and of Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad (1234), author of a history of Aleppo. Moham- med al-Shahra.stani (1153) wrote a history of religiotis and philosophical sects which is still our chief authority on the subject. The most noteworthy biographical writers were Abu Za- kariyah, al-Nawawi (1274 1 and Ibn Khallikan ( 12S2) , who treats of 805 persons. Bibliography was treated of by Mohammed ibn Ishak al-Nadim (995), Ali ibn Yusuf al-Kifti (1248), and Hajji Khalfa (1658). With the exception of Ibn Khaldun the Arabic historians lack critical sense; they are mostly mere chronographers. In geography they displayed nnieh greater ability and have left us works of lasting value. The chief geographical writers are Ibn Hisham. Khur- dadhbah (912), JIasudi. Ahmad ibn Fadlan (921), Abu Ishak al-Istakliri (tenth century), Ibn Haukal (977). al-ilukaddasi (985), the traveller Ibn Batutah (1377), Yakut (1178), who, like al-Bakri (1094). wrote an extensive- geographical dictionary, al-Kazvini (1276) and Abu al-Fida. Besides these advances in the solid branches of knowledge the genius of the Arabs continually tiowered into ]ioetry. From Bagdad to Cordova the ilohanunedan world was full of sweet sing- ers. Collections of the works of older poets (Dlwans) were made, of single writers, of the poems of individual tribes, or arranged according to the subject matter of tiie poems. L'mar ibn Rabiah (1328), the Arabian ilinnesinger; Abu Xuwas.the Heine of the court of Ha run al-Rashid; the royal poets Abd al-Rahman (788) and Al-Mu- tamid" (1095) of Spain: iluslim ibn al-Walid (757): Abd Allah ibn al-Mutazz (1502); Abu Firas (968): al-Tughrai (1120): and the pane- gyrist of Mohammed, al-Busiri (1279), are a few of the brightest stars. Though much of this poetry was scholastic in form, al-Mutanabbi (965) is considered one of the greatest Moham- medan poets and his Dlicun. with its 289 poems, was always widely read. A new s]iecies of poetry was invented, the Mul-fimOt. a sort of rhymed prose in a finished and most ornamental style and ex- hibiting merely the literary prowess of the writer. Of such a kind were the writings of Ahmad al- Hamadhani (1007) and Abu Mohanuned al- Hariri of Basra (1121). Side by side with this scholastic poetry there grew up a large mass of popular verse, which refused to be botmd by the canonical metres and which developed the strophe, otherwise unknowni to Arabic literature. A par- ticular form of this was the ^flura.'<hlth^h. or girdle poem. A popular, and at times fantastic pojndar prose literature also made its appear- ance, in which the Eastern craving for the won- derful and gorgeous was richly gratified. This was largely influenced by non-.rabic literatures, as in the Fables of Bidpai. translated in 750
