bv Alid Allah iliu al-iliiUaira liuiii the Persian, in The;>'ei'f/i Wise Masters, and in the Arabiun Mights (q.v.). Pure Bedouin runianees are tlio stories of l!>(iif ihu dhi Yuzuii, of the litmu UilOl, of al Zh; and especially the Antur I/oiiikikv, xvliich gives the most faithful picture of desert life, and which was not without inlluence upon the ronuince and chivalry of niedianal Europe.
All this culture of the early centuries of Mo- liammedanisni presents a slmny contrast to the decline which is evident from the ascendancy of the Turks in the sixteenth century to our own day. Scholastic discussions ou dogmatics and jurisprudence, and tedious grammatical discpiisi- tions became the order of the day. The expedition of Napoleon to Egypt presaged the introduc- tion of Western culture to the East, and a slow intellectual resurrection has commenced. The printing presses of Bulak. Fez, Constantinople, Beirut and of several Indian cities are extremely productive, and edition after edition is <|uickly exhausted. Newspapers in Arabic are now pub- lished all over the East, and even in Western cities, e.g. Paris and New York. Writers have also begun to attempt, with more or less success, to imitate European forms of thought and senti- ment. Of these may be mentioned ilichael Sab- bagh of Syria {La Colomhe Mcasdyere. Arabic and French. Paris, 1805): the Sheik Rifaa of Cairo {Tlie Brol-en Lyre, Paris, 1827): Manners and (Uistoins of the Europeans (Cairo. 1S.'?4): Travels in France (Cairo. 1825). But despite all this, the results obtained in Eg;s'pt during the period from 1708 down to the English tutelage, in 1882, are meagre. Mehemet Ali introduced the print- ing-press in 1821, and founded a school for mathematics. Some of the works of the best European writers were translated into Arabic; the vice-regal library was founded in Cairo in lb70. Few great scliolars and writers have as yet appeared: and it is questionable wliether the attempt to develop the common speech into a literary language will be more successful. The erideavor to substitute the Roman script for the .rabic( furthered notably by Professor W. Fiske) will certainly not aid the regeneration. The fol- lowing modern poets deserve mention: Hasan al- Attar (17CG-18.38); Abd Allah Pasha al-Fikri (1834-00): Aisha Ismat Hanun. daughter of Ismail Pasha; and ilohammed Utiiman .Talal (b.l820). the translator of Racine and Moli^re. To these may be added the historians Abd .llali al-Sharkawi" (1737-1812). and Abd al-Rahmau al-.Tabarti(d.l82(j). both historians of the French occupation: AH Pastta Mubarak (1823-03). the topographist of Cairo and Alexandria; and the great jurist Ibrahim al-Bajuri (1783-18(51), rec- tor of the al-Azhar University. In Syriiv the dearth of literary etTort was still greater. The beginnings of a new life are due to European and -American etlorts. The American Presliyterian missionaries and the French .Jesuits (since ISOO) have started a new life in Beirut by means of the printing-press and modern schools. A real interest in the old literature has been awakened, many of the masterpieces being reedited in a critical spirit. In this connection nniy be men- tinned the philologist and poet Nasif al-Yaziji (1800-71), who wrote the critical observations in Do Sacv's edition of Hariri (E/iistohi Critiea. U-ipzig. 1848); Butrus al-Bistani (1810-1883), author of a dictionary and a general encyclope- dia; Ahmad Faris al-Shidyak(d.l884) , the gram- marian; Khalil Sarkis (1877), the historian of Jerusalem; and Louis Cheikho, the learned editor of the old Arabic poets. . In the old home of the faith, Mecca, literarj- activity still continues to our own day. but iipon the old theological and dogmatic lines. Wortliy of mention are Ahmad Dablan (C.1S8U), theologian and historian, the autlior of mure tlian twenty works, and Jloham- med ibn Omar al-awawi (c.1885), by origin a Jlalay, the author of eighteen works upon dill'er- ent subjects. In India European inlluence in literature is confined to the publications of the Bibliea Indiea; and to a few writers such as Siddik Hasan, husbaiid of the Sultaneo of Bhopa. The same condition prevails in the Maghrib (Northwest Africa). French culture has had no perceptible influence upon Arabic literature in .Algiers; Morocco is as dead to European in- fluences as if it were in the heart of Arabia. The productions of the lithographic press at Fez are all confined to the older Islamic theological, legal, and historical literature.
Bibliography. (1) General works: Brockel- mann. Gesehiclite der arahiseheU' Litteratur (Wei- mar, 1898-1002), and his more popular work (with translations) published nnder the same title (Leipzig, 1001), in the c<dlection. Die Lit- teraturen des Ostens in. Einzeldarstellungcn, vol. vi.; Cliauvin, Bihliographie .4r(((K (Li&ge, 1892, sqq.); Hammer - Purgstall. Litteraturyeschichfe der Arqier (7 vols., Vienna, 1850-56; antiquated); .Arbuthnot, Arabic A-Uthors (London, 1800); Von Kremer, Culturgeschiehte des Orients (Vienna, 1877); Goldziher, Mohamniedanische Stndien (Halle, 1880-00); Zenker, Bibiiotheea Oricntalis (Leipzig. 184(i; for printed books); Hartraann. .-Irobic Press of Egypt (London, 1808); Hajji Khalfa, Lexicon bibtiograficum (ed. Flugel, Leipzig-London. 1835-58); .Ahlwardt. ]'crzeicliniss der arabiselieii- Handseliriften der liinigliehen Bibliothek::n- Berlin (Berlin. 1887 sqq.). (2) Poetry: yH'iMcke. Beitriige znr Kenntniss der Poesie der alten .lr«!)fr( Hanover. 1864); Ahlwardt, Ueher Poesie nnd Poctik der Araber (Gotha. 1856); Schack, Poesie nnd Ktinst der Araber in Hpanien and Hizilien (Berlin, 1865); Basset, La poesie arabe unteislaniique (Paris, 1880); .Jacob. Studien in arabisehen Diehtern (i.-iii., Berlin, 1803-05); Ilartmann. Das amtiische Strophengedieht (Weimar. 1806-07): Carlyle. Specimens of Arabic Poctrg (London. 1840): Clouston, Arabic Poetrg (London. 1S80); Lyall, Ancient Arabic Poetry (London. 1885). (3) History: Wiistenfeld, Die Geschichtsschreiber der Araber (Ciiittingen, 1882). (4) Geography; Wiistenfeld. Die Littcrntur der ErdbcschreihtuKi bet den Arubern ( Jlagdeburg, 1842) . (5) Philology; Fliigel. Die (irnnimatischen f^cliulen der Araber (Leipzig, 1862). (6) Philosophy: De Boer, Gcschichte der Philosophic in Islam (Stuttgart, 1001); Munk, Melanges de philosophic jnire ct arabe (Paris, 1850); Dugat, Histoire des pihilosophes et des thcolofliens mnsulmans (Paris, 1870); Dieterici, Die Philosophic der Araber im X. Jahrhundert (I.eipzig, 1876-78) . (7) Science: Wiistenfeld. Gcschichte der arabisehen Acrzte (Gcittingen. 1840); Leclerc. Histoire de la nu'de-cinc arabe (Paris. 1876): Sedillot. Matcriaux ponr servir a Vhistoire comparee des sciences nKithcmatif/ncs chcr les Grces ct les Orientaux (Paris, 1845-49); Steinsehneider. Die arabisehen Vcbersetzungen aiis dem Griechischcn (Leipzig,
