CHU-HI. 725 CHtJKOR. like a philosophical system, instead of the an- cient sini])!? cthii's and ritual. C'hu-lli, ex- panding and expounding the doctrines thus set forth a century l)efore his day. won fame all over the empire, and was summoned by the Km- peror to the Court for consultation in regard to things literary and political. lie elucidated llie doctrines of Confucius and ^lencius, more especially with reference to the nature of man, the origin of good and evil, and the principles of creation. In IISO, as governor of a city in Kiang-si. he applied his principles and grc-atly improved public morals. His study room was the White Deer Grotto, on the hills near Lake Pcyang. Xot content with philosophy, he sum- moned around him famous scholars, who were his pupils and worked over the great liistorical annals of Sze-ila Kwang, and thus furnislied the standard history of China; for ChuTIi's work, having been many times since reprinted with commentary and continuation, has been widely read in all Chinese Asia. Nearly all the histories and biographies (apart from an- nals) written since his time in Cliina. Korea, Japan, etc., have been powerfully intluenced by Chu-Hi"s model — that is. on the plan of philos- ophy and edification, being less consecutive nar- ratives of events than a|)praisals of men and their actions as righteous and imrighteous, ac- cording to Chu-Hi's standards. Chu-Ili extended his labors in every direction of metaphysical speculation, and his conunen- taries on the ancient writings of the sages have held the intellect of learned men of China and surrounding countries almost without challenge or criticism, until about the beginning of the second half of the Seventeenth Century, when they began to l)e vigorously assailed in China, and later in Korea and Japan. In Japan. Chu- Hi's system is called Tei-shu, which is the Japanese pronunciation of the names of the Cheng brothers and of Chu-(Hi). It was offi- cially encouraged by lyeyasu and his successors very much as a State Church, and to oppose it openly was at first politically dangerous. Its most famous Japanese expounders were Kyuso, Seiga, and Aral Hakuseki, the opponents of this orthodox school and the critics of Chu-Hi being Jinsai, Sorai, Togai, and others. The latter, forming the Kogahu school, was noted for its doubt of the truth of the teachings of Chu-Hi. Chu-Hi's philosophy in Japan, as well as in China, profoundly influenced the form and spirit • of literature, both scholastic and popiilar; but in .Tapan. the Chinese teachings, becoming amal- gamated in a common cause with Shinto, served powerfully to stimulate the national sentiment and feeling which overthrew the Shogun and Vedo Government and restored the Jlikado to supreme po'ver. Especially in the Province of Mito was this union of Chinese philosophy and Shinto teaching successfully carried out, power- fully influencing the minds of the gentry and scholars in bringing about the great revolution of ISC8. Thus one of the stran-^-^st phenomena in history was witnessed in livit the rule of the Tokugawa family (Ifi04-18(i8, was first sliaken and then overthrown by the very doctrine '"which generations of able shoguns and their ministers had earnestly encouraged and protected." In China. Chu-Hi's philosophy held its own until near the close of the Ming Dynasty (1.308- 1044), when Chinese «<^-!iihir« I'C.'an to feel that Chu-Hi's system was too narrow to hold all the truth. As a result of the profound thinking stimulated by the Manchu conquest, a school of criticism and opposition arose whose demand was for a study of the ancient texts in tludr purity. By continuation and expansion of philo- sopliical lalior. and especially by coming into con- tact with Occidental science and s|)cculation, modern reformers have come into view, whose activity and aims have been so obscured to Western minds by the Boxer uprising (1900) and the necessary foreign invasion. In brief, the system promulgated by Chu-Hi is a body of thought which may lx> called the result of Chinese retlection during fiftwn hundred years, put into logical Chinese form indeed, but in reality an amalgamation of the three systems or religions of China. It is the ethics of Con- fucius transfused with the mystical elements of Taoism and the speculations of Buddhism, though very little acknowledgment is made to any thought originating outside of the Confucian cycle. It is less rationalistic than pantheistic, for the cultivated Confucians believe in heaven as a bundle of laws and forces, or at least an orderly system of abstract principles and regu- lafed energv', but with no clear expression of personality. Their voluminous discussions of Spirit, Way, Reason, Law, are about what is formless and invisible, ^^^len a term for Cre- ator is used, it is a rare word and found only in the vocabulary of scholars. There is no clear grasp of the idea of a personal Creator. Man is the highest expression of the forces of the universe, and even gods and devils fear his de- termined mind. The ultimate realities are force and law. IMan has no immortal soul : he is highest in the scale of existence, yet he is only one in the endless series. The station, duty, or position in life is greater than the individual, and it detenu ines him. Hence, in Japan, while loyalty (not filial piety, as in China) is the loot of the system, the high sense of honor and willingness of self-effacement in the line of duty. Hence, also, in China the determination at all hazards to 'save the face' of everything, and the making of form and ritual equal to sub- stance and containing it. In Japan in the Twentieth Century, Chu-Hi's system is but a memory, or at most an evanescent shadow: in Korea it is powerful, yet rather as an adjunct to political economy: in China it still holds its own, but precariously, against the assaults of the modern radical reformers, of whom Kang Yu-Wei, who in ISO!) emerged into notice as adviser to the Emperor, is the most conspicuous example and best known in the Occident. CHUKCHI, chook'che'. Sec Tciiuktciii. CHU-KIANG, ehoo'kyilng' (Chinese, pearl river), called also the Caxto.n Kivek. A river of southern China, in the Province of Kwanir-tung (Map: China, D 7), It is formed by the Xortli
- ind West rivers, which unite about .10 miles from
Canton, which is sitiuited at the head of its ex- tensive delta. The estuary is very wide. The total length of the river is about 100 miles. The Si-Kiang is connected with the delta of the Chu- Kiang. See P.ocv Ttonis. CHUK'OR, or CHICK'ORE (Hind. c<tW,r. Skf. rnlfini. partridge). The Anglo-Indian name of the conuuon red-legL'ed hill partridge (Piicrii- his chukor), a favorite game-bird in northern
