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CHURCH HISTORY. 732 in so mueli development of doctrine and disci- pline also led to the careful recording of inii)or- tant events. The product of this literary activity falls into three main classes — histories of sepa- rate peoples; attempts at universal histories; and the mass of annals, chronicles, and bibliog- raphies. The most prominent names in the lirst class are: Isidore of .Seville, for the Goths and Vandals: Oregon' of Tours, for the Franks; Bede, for the Anglo-Saxons; and Paulus Diaco- nus for the Lombards. The earliest mediseval at- tciiqit at a general Church historj- was made by Ilavmo of llalberstadt (died 8.53) ; another fol- lowed in 872, by Anastasius, the librarian of the Roman Church. Ordericus 'italis ])roduced a notable work about 1-112. But the greatest gen- eral history written in the IMiddle Ages was that of the Dominican Antoninus, Archbishop of Flor- ence from 144(j-.5y. In places, especially in his account of the donation of Constantine, he shows an awakening of the critical spirit which was fostered by Laurentius Valla and Nicolas of Ctisa. The third class is far too large to treat in detail. A catalogue raisonnd of it may be found in Potthast, liibliotheca Uistoria: Medil .Kri (Berlin. 1802), or in Chevalier, h'cpciloiie (It's suuixx'ti historiijius dii moyeii aye, Bio-hibli- ograiihie (Paris, 1881!.). A new era began for ecclesiastical history about the end of the Fifteenth Century. The critical tendcn<-y aroused by the revival of let- ters, the biinging to the West of early Greek texts, the rendering of sources accessible by the invention of printing, and the controversial spirit of the Kcforniation. which forced both sides to attempt to justify their position by history — all these made gi'eat changes in tlic method. About, the middle of the Sixteenth Century the Magde- burg Centuriators (q.v.) undertook their great work with a view of proving the utter iniquity of all that had ever been done by the Papacy, which to them was Antichrist, and though they had unusual scholarship and knowledge of sources, their polemical bias detracted much from the value of their work. It called forth a counter-blast from t)ie Catholic side in the .i»- iials of the Oratorian Baroniiis, who had access to an immense number of valuable documents; while of course he was not a modern historian, yet he produced a work far in advance of any ])revious attempt, and accei)ted so generally that a century passed befoie any other work of the same scope was undertaken. The next impor- tant work from the Roman Catholic stand])oint came from France, as part of the general efflo- rescence of the reign of Louis XIV. The names of Oodcau (died 1(172), Maimbourg (died 1686), Fleury (died 1724), and still more Xatalis Alexander (died 1724) and de Tillemont (died 16!)8). deserve to be rememljered. Of modern French works — all these are Roman Catholic — the best are Rohrbaeher (died 18.56), Darras, and Gnettee. Italy does not supply many names of excellence in the general field: the most not- able are Orsi (died 1761). de Graveson (died 17:i:i), and Berti (died 1706). The Italians distinguished themselves more in special studies, particularly JIansi. Muratori, de Rossi, !Moroni, and Tiraboschi. In Germany there has been since the Reformation a continuous tradition of apolo- gists for that movement and its principles. Spe- cial histories of it were composed by Sleidan and Seckendorf. In the Seventeenth Century CHURCHILL. Calixtus distinguished himself in this depart- ment, and, after him, lllig, Rechenberg, and Thomasius. In the general field, still from the Lutheran side, there are the mystic Arnold (died 1714), lloshcim (died 175.5), and his pupil, Schrochk (died 1808) : Sender (died 1799), who led the way to a more rationalistic treatment; and Planck (died 1833). In modern times the first great name is Xeander (died 1850), and F. C. Baur, who followed out the ini- ])ulse of Sender, has had nuich iutluence. Baur's work was continued by his son, F. Baur, and his son-in-law, Zeller. Hase (died 1890) holds a middle ground between Baur and the more orthodox; and later still in time come Ilar- nack, Hauck, and Loofs. Other historians in the Reformed churches have been largely spe- cialists, such as Pearson, Dallaus, Dodweli. Bev- eridge, Bingham. Usher, Cave, and Blondel. The Churcli of E^igland. to which some of these names belong, and which produced in the middle of the Xineteenth Century ililman's IJislory of Latin Christianily and the work of Robertson, has later been adorned by the learning of Stubbs and Crcighton. A succession of learned German writers in the Roman Catliolic Church dates from Count von Slolberg (died 1819), whose work was continued l)y von Kerz, Bri- schar. and Katerkamp. Others of this school are Hortig (died 1847), Ritter (died 1857). Alzog (died 1878), Hefele (died 1893), Cardinal Hergenriither (died 1890), and Pa.stor. In Amer- ica, Church history has not been much cultivated, but the best general historian is Philip Schaff. Others mIio have done good service are G. P. Fisher, .J. H. Hurst, and H. C. Sheldon. The modem tendency everywhere, as in other branches of learning, is toward specializaticm rather than an attempt to cover the entire field: and a multi- tude of works bearing on the history of par- ticular churches and jieriods will be found re- ferred to in the bibliography of the articles on those subjects. For bibliograjihy of a more ex- tended nature, consult: llagenbach. Encyklo- ■piidic und Metltudnlogie dcr thcoloinachcn ^yis■ scnschaften ( 12th ed. by Reischle. Leipzig, 1889) ; Crooks and Uurst, Thcohigical Kiicy- clopwdia (Xew York, 1884), which is based upon Hagenbach ; and, for the names of R<mian Cath- olic works, Hurter, Xomcuclator Literariiis (5 vols., Innsbruck, 1871-80). CHURCHILL, CiLiiiLES (1731-64). An Eng- lish poet, born in Westminster, where his father became a curate. He was educated at West- minster School, and two years later, at 17. made a clandestine marriage. In 1756 he was or- dained, and soon afterwards succeeded his father as curate of Saint .lohn's. Westminster. In 1701 he published anonymously (at his own risk, the booksellers having offered him only five guineas for it) The Rosciad. a satire on theatri- cal managers and performers. Its success was instant, and ha avowed himself the author, l^ater in the same year he brought out The Apology, a bitter attack on his critics, which added alike to his purse and to his notori- ety. He now totally neglected the duties of his ollice. and led a most dissolute life. His pa- rishioners were scandalized, and his dean remon- strated ; whereupon, to show his utter contempt for the ministerial profession. Churchill ap- jieared in a blue coat, goldlaced hat and wai.st- coat, and large ruffles. He was obliged, however, I