Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 14.djvu/676

NIPPTJR. 576 NIRVANA. Caracas (Map: unc'2ucla, D 2). It is situated in the richest district of the State, in a region jjrodueing colVce, cacao, sugar, tobacco, and cot- ton, as well as live stock. Nirgua was founded in 1.554, and in I'Mo rich gold deposits were dis- covered in the vicinity. The population of the municipality, in 1S!)1, was 83U4. NIRUKTA, neroolc'til (Skt., explanation, from nin, out + iihta. p.p. of riic, to speak). The tween the Tigris and the Euphrates, about 100 miles southeast of J5agdad. The Talmud identi- fies it with Calneh (Uen. x. 10). Nippur was fa- mous as the seat of worship of the god Bel (or En-lil), who at an early period acquired a unupie position as the chief ilcity of the Babyl.iniau Tantheon. This is indicated by his name, which signifies 'lord' par cxcidlcncc. The clo.sc con- iiec'tion in ancient IJahylonia between political ^ _ ^ supreniaev and religious prominence justifies the name of that one of the six V<'<h'iiigas (see Vii- supposition that for a considerable period Nip- nANO.) which explains dillicult Vedic words, pur, the city of Bel, also exercisecl control oyer Xhere must have been several works of this <h;ir- at least a large portion of the Euphrates Val- ley. The religious sanctity of the place, how- ever, outlasted its political history, and for many centuries after Nippur had yielded its political supremacy to other centres it con- tinued to be a favorite i)lace of pilgrimage, and the kings of both Bal)ylonia and Assyria vied in rendering homage to the great Bel by restoring ruined portions of his temple. The chief temple was known as Ekur, 'Mountain House,' and there was also a stage-tower (cifc- Imrrat), rising to a considerable height, with a shrine of Bel at the top. Besides Bel and his consort, Belit, other gods were worshiped at Nippur, and temples or shrines were erected to them, so that there came to be a large sacred complex, shut otr from the rest of the city by a double wall. Systematic explorations at Nippur have been conducted by the University of Pennsylvania, be- ginning in 1888 under the direction of the Rev. Dr. John P. Peters, the founder and organizer of the expedition, and continued at intervals till 1900. During 1893-00. and again in 1898-1900, the work was in charge of J. H. Haynes. who was joined in the field during the spring of 1900 by Prof. II. V. Hilprecht. As a result a con- siderable portion of the temple area and ad- joining grounds has been laid bare, the charac- ter and i)lans of the ancient buildings have been determined, and a large number of inscriptions, historical and votive, as well as over 30.000 commercial and literary tablets, have been found. The larger niniber of the tablets were discovered in a section of the mound containing an edifice or edifices used for the U'gal and literary archives of the temple. Tlirough the liistorical and vo- tive inscriptions, of which two volumes have been published by Professor Hilprecht [Ohl liahi/loiiiiin Inncriplions, f'hirfly from Xippiir, Philadelphia, 1893-96), the history of Nippur has been traced to a date, according to some, as early as c.4.500 B.C., according to others to c.3200 or 3000 ii.c. Much light has been shed on the general course of events from Ibi-^ early period ilown to the rule of the Kassiles in Baby- lotua (c. iron 1-200 n.c). who appear to have been particularly attached to the cult of Bel of Nippur. A third volume by Professors 1111- nrecht and Clnv { Hiisiiicis Dnriimrulu nf Muni- shu. Roii.9 of ippur, Philadelphia. 1898) con- sists of 120 tablets of a conunercial character, illustrating business methods in Babylonia dur- ing the Persian period. Consult, besides the works alreadv mentioned: Peters, ippiir. or Explorulions'inul Ailiriihirix on Ihr /•.'iz/i/iro/r.'! (New York, 1897): Hilprecht. Ki-plorntionx in nihil- LaiuU (Inring the "Sinetcenth Centuni (Phil- adelphia. 1903). NIRGTIA. nvr'gwft. A town of the State of Carabobo. Venezuela, 110 miles southwest of acter in a remote period of Hindu antiquity, which bore the name Xirukta. for 'Nirukta authors' are quoted either generally or by name in sev- eral Sanskrit authors; but the work which is especially called yinih-tii. and which. thus far, is the only" surviving representative of this impor- tant division of the 'edangas. is that of Yaska, who was a predecessor of Panini (q.v.). His work consists of three parts — the yaighantiika, where, for the most part, synonymous words are given: the Nuigtima, which contains words that usually occur in the Vedas only: and the i)i7i- rata, vhieh contains words chiefly relating to deities and sacrificial acts. A commentary on this work has been composed by the same Yaska, and it likewise bears the name of Nirukta. In this. Vedic passages are quoted in illustra- tion of the words to be explained, and the com- ment given by Yaska on these passages is the oldest known "instance of a Vedic gloss. Besides the great importance which Yaska's Nirukta thus possesses for a pro]ier understanding of the Vedic texts, it is valualile also on account of several discussions which it raises on gram- matical and other questions, and on account of the insight it all'ords into the scientific and religious conditions of its time. The text and commentarv of the yinikta have been edited by Roth (Gottingen, 18.52), and by Samassami. The Mrukia, iritlt Commentaries (Calcutta, 1882-91). NIRVANA, ner-va'nS (Skt. nirvana. QxUnc- tion. from •11.';. out + reiHfl. a blowing, from ra. to blow). In Buddliistic doctrine, the term denot- ing final deliverance from transmigration. It implies, consequently, the last aim of Buddhism, since transmigration is tantamount to a relapse into the evils or miseries of xamsara. or the world. But as Himluism. or the Brahnvanieal doctrine, professes to lead to the same end. the difference between nirvana and mokxa. aparar- qa. or the other terms of Brahmanism desigmit- ing eternal bliss, and consequent liberation from metempsychosis (q.v.). rests on the ditTerence of the ideas which both doctrines connect with the condition of the individual after that liberation. According to the Hralimanical doctrine, man has a soul, and Brahma being the existing and everlasting cause of the universe, eternal hap- piness is to the Brahmanical Hindu the ab- sorption of the soul into that cause whence it emanated, never to depart from it again. On the other hand, as the ultimate cause of the universe, according to Buddhism, is non-entity. Die deliverance from transmigration is. to the Buddhists, the return to non entity, or the abso- lute extinction of individuality. Buddhism ac- knowledu'es no soul. Ill lirahmanism the sepa- rate soul is realis(ube(l into the All-soul. In Buildhism. individuality ceases. But to some Buddhists, as also to the .Tains, nirvana became a term significant rather of emancipation, cter-