Public School History of England and Canada/England/Chapter 14
CHAPTER XIV.
THE WISE RULE OF ELIZABETH.
1. Elizabeth.—When Mary died, her sister Elizabeth became queen. At this time she was twenty-five years of age, tall and queenly in figure, with fair hair and blue eyes. As a queen she had few faults; as a woman she had many. In her council, surrounded by wise and careful advisers, she weighed everything before acting, and as events proved, seldom made a mistake. The good of her subjects was ever before her, and by her-tact, caution, and skill in diplomacy, she kept the country out of war and gave it a chance to become rich and great. She was not content to have England at peace with foreign nations: she also sought to unite the various warring sections of her people and to restore peace and order throughout the nation. How she succeeded events will show. As a woman, she was vain, frivolous, fond of flattery and the attention of handsome courtiers. Frugal, even stingy, in all else, she spent large sums of money on dress and finery, leaving, it is said, three thousand dresses in her wardrobe. Her greatest fault was her habit of using deceit and falsehood to bewilder and overreach her enemies. This she did because, as she said, she was “a weak woman” with many powerful foes at home and abroad. Her education had been well looked after; for, not only was she an excellent horsewoman, dancer, shot, and musician, but she was well read in Greek, Latin, and French, and could converse in Italian and Spanish. She was the friend of the great writers who lived in her day, and at her court they found a hearty welcome.
2. Elizabeth’s early difficulties—When Elizabeth began her reign she found her people discontented, her treasury empty, her army and navy weak, and she had powerful enemies in the persons of Philip II. of Spain, and the Ming of France. To add to her difficulties, Mary, the daughter of James V. of Scotland, and granddaughter of Margaret, Henry VIII’s elder sister, claimed the crown of England, on the plea that: Elizabeth was illegitimate. Mary was married to the Dauphin of France, and Scotland in her absence was ruled by her mother, Mary of Guise, who acted as Regent. French troops had been brought into Scotland to help the Regent against the “Lords of the Congregation,” or Protestant nobles, who were now becoming very powerful, and were much under the influence of John Knox and Earl Murray, Mary’s half-brother.
At this time great struggles were going on in Europe between Roman Catholics and Protestants. Philip II. of Spain was the most powerful ruler in Europe, and he was, with great cruelty, trying to crush out a rebellion in the Low Countries for political and religious freedom. In France a fierce struggle was going on between the Huguenots, or French Protestants, and the French king. So when Elizabeth became queen, the eyes of all Europe were upon her to see whether she would be a Protestant or a Roman Catholic.
At first she would not take the side of either religious party. The Protestants hoped she would be their friend, knowing the religious belief of Anne Boleyn, her mother; while the Roman Catholics were encouraged by her apparent hesitation. Her first task was to free England and herself from the control of Spain. She made peace with France. Philip, who wished to marry her, and the Pope, who tried to get her to espouse his cause, were put off with excuses. At length, when Parliament met, it was ordered that the Prayer-Book of Edward VI, with some slight changes, should be restored to the Churches, and that the clergy should recognize the Royal Supremacy of Elizabeth. Roman Catholics and people of other creeds were not to be molested, provided they attended the service of the English Church. If any refused to attend they were made to pay a heavy fine.
The Bishops, being Roman Catholics, would not take the oath of supremacy, and were, therefore, removed from their offices and moderate Protestants put in their places. Elizabeth did not like the extreme Protestants, and she chose for her chief adviser in Church affairs Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, a man of the same moderate views as her own. In the beginning of her reign, the Roman Catholics were more than half of the population, and Elizabeth had to be very careful, knowing that many of her subjects looked to Mary, Queen of Scots, who was a strong Roman Catholic, as the rightful queen.
3. Elizabeth and Scotland.—To offset Mary’s influence in England, Elizabeth aided the Protestant nobles, or “Lords of the Congregation,” in Scotland in their struggle with Mary of Guise, who sought to crush out Protestantism. Lord Grey with 8,000 men was sent to help the Scotch against a French force, which the Regent had brought over, and which was now besieged in Leith. While the siege was going on, Mary of Guise died, and the French promised to leave the kingdom. The Scotch Lords also agreed that Elizabeth should be recognized as the queen of England, but Mary, the Scotch queen, would not be bound by this agreement. Shortly after this her husband, Francis II. of France, died, and she returned to rule over her own kingdom. She was warmly welcomed by Protestants and Roman Catholics alike, and her youth, beauty, and winning ways made her a general favourite. Her most powerful subjects and her Parliament were the followers of John Calvin of Geneva, a great Protestant teacher, and Mary did not attempt to force her own religious opinions on her people.
4. England’s Prosperity.—Elizabeth’s enemies abroad, France and Spain, owing to their jealousy of each other, left her at peace until they could settle their own quarrels. In the meantime the nation prospered greatly. Elizabeth’s economy filled the public treasury, and the order and good government she gave the nation encouraged the people to make improvements in tilling the soil, and to engage in trade and commerce. Manufactures increased rapidly, and new industries were introduced through the many people that came to England to escape from the wars and religious persecutions in Flanders and France. Cloth-weaving was greatly improved by the Flemings, while later on, through the French, came a greater skill in silk manufactures. Raw gold and silver were brought from America, gold dust and ivory from Africa, and silks and cottons from the Hast. Increase of trade caused an increase in shipping, and Elizabeth encouraged her subjects to build ships for adventures in the far east, west, and north. Frobisher discovered the straits of Hudson’s Bay, Sir Humphrey Gilbert tried to colonize Newfoundland, Hawkins opened up a traffic in slaves with the coast of Africa, and Sir Francis Drake, a famous sea-captain, sailed round the world in a little vessel, bringing home a great treasure, which he obtained by plundering Spanish settlements in America. So great was the increase of wealth among all classes of the people that many things now considered necessaries, but which then were luxuries, came into general use. Carpets on the floors, abundance of glass in the windows, pillows for the head, chimneys instead of holes in the roof, now became common. Money was spent freely by the gay lords and ladies on fine dresses, jewels, feasts, revels, and pageants. Money was so easily got that it was recklessly spent. Even the poor gained under Elizabeth’s rule. An earnest effort was now made to lessen the pauperism that had so long existed. A law was passed making it necessary for each parish to provide for its own poor, and power was given to the parish to levy taxes for that purpose. Work-houses and poorhouses were to be built, where work, food, and shelter could be given to the needy, aged, and helpless. It was not, however, until near the end of Elizabeth’s reion that the “Poor Laws” were completed.
5. Religious Discord.—While the country was thus growing in wealth, it unfortunately was not at peace in religious affairs. There were two kinds of people that were not satisfied with the way Elizabeth tried to govern the Church. The Roman Catholics could not take the Oath of Supremacy, and they were forbidden by the Pope to go to the English Church services. On the other hand there was a growing body that thought the English Church was too near the Roman Catholic Church in its form of worship and church government, and that wished to bring the English Church closer to the Churches in Germany and Switzerland. These were the Puritans, who wanted, they said, a purer form of worship. Elizabeth cared little what people believed so long as they all attended the same Church services. She wished to have one law in the Church for all classes of her subjects, just as there was but one law in the State. So Parliament passed an Act in 1563, that no person could hold an office, or be a member of Parliament, unless he would obey the Queen, and deny that the Pope had any authority in England.
6. Mary, Queen of Scots.—We saw that when Mary returned to Scotland she received a hearty welcome from her people. She was but nineteen at that time, and so beautiful, fascinating, and clever, that few people, even the sternest, could resist her charms. She had not been long in Scotland before she began to plot against Elizabeth for the English throne. Her subjects were ready to aid her; so was Philip of Spain; and so were some of Elizabeth’s subjects.
Mary was Elizabeth’s heir, and this made Elizabeth’s friends anxious. They were afraid that some fanatic would murder Elizabeth to give Mary the crown. So they frequently urged Elizabeth to marry and give them an heir to the throne. She would refuse until sorely pressed by her Parliament, and then would promise to choose a husband. But she never married although she had many lovers and suitors, who, for a time, were encouraged and then quietly rejected. Why she did not marry we do not know. Some think she desired to marry Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, who was for many years her favourite. She knew that if she married a Protestant she would displease her Roman Catholic subjects, whereas if she married a Roman Catholic she would anger her Protestant subjects. So she remained a “Virgin Queen” and found in the love and devotion of her people a partial recompense for the lack of husband and children.
The anxiety of Elizabeth’s subjects was increased when Mary married, in 1565, Lord Darnley her cousin. Darnley, like Mary, was descended from Margaret, Henry VIII’s sister, and his family were Roman Catholics. By this marriage Mary strengthened her claim on the throne of England, and had she now acted with prudence, Elizabeth might have been driven from the throne, or else compelled to recognize Mary as her successor. But Mary, with all her cleverness, could not control her passions, and by giving way to them she lost not only all chance of becoming queen of England, but also caused herself to be driven into exile. She soon tired of her young husband, who was a foolish youth, and wanted to become king, and by his jealousies and follies gave Mary much annoyance. She had an Italian secretary, David Rizzio, with whom she was so intimate that Darnley grew jealous. Aided by a band of rough Scotch lords he broke into Mary’s chamber at Holyrood when she was supping with Rizzio. Rizzio was dragged out and stabbed to death, and his body flung down a staircase near Mary’s chamber. Mary tried to save him but was held back by Darnley while the murder took place. After a time she pretended-to forgive her husband, and three months after the murder, her son, James, was born. Not long after this event, Darnley being ill, Mary had him removed to an old building, Kirk-O’-Field, not far from Holyrood, for quiet and rest. One night when Mary was attending a dance given to her servants in Holyrood, an explosion took place at Kirk-O’-Field, and the next morning Darnley and his page were found dead in an adjoining field. The house had been blown up with gunpowder, and although Darnley and the page had escaped from the house, they had been overtaken and murdered. No one knew whether Mary had planned the deed or not; but the servants of the Earl of Bothwell, a bold, profligate noble, were seen near the scene of the tragedy that evening, and a short time after Mary allowed herself to be carried off by Bothwell to one of his castles and there married to him.
The people of Scotland were horrified at the murder and the marriage, and at once her lords rose against her. She was taken prisoner, and forced to give up her crown to her son. A year later she escaped from Loch Leven Castle, and gathered an army, but she was defeated at Langside, in 1568, by Earl Murray. With difficulty Mary escaped into England when she claimed the protection and aid of Elizabeth.
7. Mary in England—What to do with Mary was more than Elizabeth could decide. Mary asked to be restored to her throne, and failing that, to be allowed to go to her mother’s people in France. The Scotch demanded that she should be sent back to be tried for the murder of her husband. Elizabeth knew that it was unsafe to allow her to go to France, and she was unwilling to hand her over to her Scotch subjects, as that would look like encouraging rebellion. So she kept Mary a prisoner in England refusing either to send her back or bring her to trial. For eighteen years was she thus kept until the numerous plots formed against Elizabeth’s life, in the interest of Mary, made it necessary that something should be done. For Mary had not been long in England before the Duke of Norfolk wished to marry her and put her on the throne. This plot was found out in time and Norfolk was warned and sent to the Tower. Then a rebellion broke out in the north, which was put down at the cost of many lives. Then the Pope excommunicated Elizabeth and. released her subjects from their allegiance to her. Parliament answered this by making strict laws against the Roman Catholics; and then another plot was formed to murder Elizabeth, to marry Mary to Norfolk, and through the aid of Spain to make Mary queen. But Elizabeth had vigilant friends in her council, and this plot becoming known Norfolk was executed. So it went on for many years till, in 1587, Anthony Babington entered into a correspondence with Mary to kill Elizabeth, and make Mary queen. The letters passed through the hands of Walsingham, the Secretary of State, and on the evidence he supplied, Mary was tried before a commission of peers and sentenced to death. Elizabeth, for a time, would not consent to sign the death warrant, although urged to do so by Parliament and her ministers. At last she signed it, and the sentence was at once carried out. Mary died protesting her innocence, but the people breathed easier beceuse a great danger was removed.
8. The Spanish Armada.—Meanwhile Elizabeth had been able to keep England out of foreign wars. She was asked to aid the Netherlands against Spain, but refused to do so openly, for many of her subjects did not want to have their trade with the Low Countries stopped. Nevertheless thousands of Englishmen crossed over to the aid of the Netherlanders and fought in their battles against the Spaniards. Among those who left the English shores was Sir Philip Sidney, a brave and noble man, and an accomplished courtier, author, and soldier. He was killed at the Battle of Zutphen. The hatred borne the Spaniards at this time by the English was shown in many ways. There was no open war between England and Spain; nevertheless English ships were fitted out to plunder Spanish settlements in America, and seize their treasure ships returning from the rich mines of the New World. We have already mentioned how Drake returned from his voyage round the world laden with Spanish treasure. When he reached home Eliza_ beth visited his ship, made him a knight, and did not refuse to accept a large portion of his spoil. So it is not surprising that Philip of Spain was angry, and only waited till his hands were free to attack England. Meanwhile new expeditions were going out against Spanish America, and at last Elizabeth sent an army to the Low Counties to aid the Netherlanders, Philip was also angry because Elizabeth had put to death several priests who came to England from a college at Douay in France to minister to the English Roman Catholics and to persuade them not to attend the English Church services. These priests were accused of preaching disloyalty and stirring the people up to rebellion, and for this many of them were executed, as well as for their religion.
At length Philip’s chance came to make the long deferred attack. Mary, Queen of Scots, was dead, and Philip was looked to as the proper person to avenge the wrongs of the Roman Catholics, and to take Elizabeth’s place on the throne of England. In 1585 he began his preparations. A great fleet, an “Armada,” was to be made ready, and was to take on board 30,000 veteran Spanish troops under the command of the Duke of Parma in the Netherlands. It was then to cross to England, and Philip hoped that when his army landed all the English Roman Catholics would join him. While the “Armada” was getting ready, Drake made a bold attack on Cadiz harbour and burnt many vessels. This he called “singeing the Spanish king’s beard.” Elizabeth was slow to believe that the attack would be really made, and was loath to give money enough to make her fleet and army effective. What she grudged to do, her subjects did at their own expense. Vessels were fitted out by private gentlemen and sent out to do battle for England’s freedom. Lord Howard of Effingham was appointed chief Admiral, but he had by his side the great sea-captains, Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, who had fought many a successful battle against Spanish ships. At last, on the 12th July, 1588, the Armada, under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, set sail. It consisted of one hundred and twenty-nine ships of great size, with thousands of soldiers and sailors on board. To oppose it was an English fleet of eighty small vessels, made up of a few of the Queen’s ships and a. number of privateers. Never was England in greater danger, and never were her people more true to their country and sovereign. Roman Catholics were as eager as Protestants to offer their aid and defend England’s shores. The Queen’s high courage did not fail her, and her appearance among her soldiers was all that was needed to give them hope and confidence. Beacon lights flamed from the English headlands to give news of the Armada’s approach. At last the great crescent of huge ships was seen coming up the Channel, and the small English fleet sailed out to damage it as much as possible. They hung on its rear and flanks to cut off any ship that might be found separated from the main body. At night fire-ships were sent adrift into the Spanish fleet, and in the fear and confusion that followed several Spanish ships were captured and destroyed. The Spaniards found that their vessels were so large and clumsy that their shot passed over the English ships, which could sail away or around them at pleasure. In despair the Armada began to retreat, pursued by its active and vengeful enemies. To add to their misfortunes a great storm arose which carried the Spanish vessels past Parma’s army, and drove them far north. Rounding the Orkneys to return to Spain the vessels were dashed on the rocks, and the shores of the north of Scotland and Ireland were strewn with corpses. Some reached the shore alive only to be murdered by the savage inhabitants of the coast. Of all that great fleet only fifty-three vessels reached Spain. England was saved: the wind and the waves had fought her battles even more effectively than her sailors or soldiers. With the defeat of the Armada passed away the long dread of a great danger} and the nation’s joy and relief found expression in the glorious literature that followed.
9. Elizabethan Literature.—Not since Chaucer had England a great poet, until Edmund Spenser wrote in this reign the “Faerie Queen.” Other great writers followed: Sidney, Raleigh, Bacon, Hooker, and greatest of all, William Shakespeare, who born in 1564 began to write towards the close of this reign his wonderful plays and dramas. To these men, great in an age of great men, Elizabeth was a friend and counsellor. Such an era in literature the nation had not hitherto experienced, and it is doubtful if such another era has since come to the English people. The great events and the daring deeds and thoughts of the time seemed to demand a Spenser and a Shakespeare to give them voice. Nor must we forget the efforts made by Sir Walter Raleigh, at once courtier, author, soldier, and voyager, to colonize Virginia. Though the colony was a failure in his time, he brought back to Europe the potato as well as tobacco, both of which soon came into use. In this reign, too, voyages were undertaken to the northern seas and the East Indies, and Elizabeth gave in 1599 a charter to the Hast India Company, with the sole right of trading in that fabled land of untold riches.
10. Ireland under Elizabeth.—It is sad to turn away from this story of brave deeds and growing prosperity to England’s treatment of Ireland. Henry VIII. had tried to make Ireland acknowledge England’s laws and accept her religion, and by so doing had given rise to a great bitterness among the Irish people. Edward VI. tried to force Protestantism on them and failed, as the Irish did not want any change in their religion. Then Mary came and restored the old religion, but began English settlements in two counties. When Elizabeth became queen, she followed her father’s policy of making Ireland English. Soon there was a rebellion under Shan O’Neil, which was put down by Sir Henry Sidney in 1567. But the rebellion broke out again under Shan’s son, Hugh, Earl of Tyrone, in 1595, when the Spaniards gave their aid. He defeated the English, and Essex, the darling of Elizabeth’s old age, was sent against him. Essex made an unwise peace with him, and then returned to England for Elizabeth’s approval. She was very angry at his folly and ordered him to keep his house fora time. Essex, in his vain pride, marched to London to seize the queen; but was arrested, tried, and executed. Lord Mountjoy, an able man, was sent in his place to Ireland, and succeeded in suppressing the revolt. In the next reign, as we shall find, large tracts of land were taken from the Irish in the north and given to Scotch and English settlers.
11. Death of Elizabeth.—But the end of this great reign was now near. Elizabeth, after the death of Essex, became despondent. She had lost much of the sympathy of her people, although in memory of her great services they bore with her frailties of temper and disposition to rule arbitrarily. Nevertheless she knew when to yield to her Parliament and people. One of her last and most gracious acts was to abolish “monopolies” on a number of articles of common use. The Parliament had grown in power during these years of peace and prosperity, and it only waited Elizabeth’s death to begin again the struggle for its lost rights and privileges.
Elizabeth’s end was a sad one. Dejected and wretched, for days she would take no food, nor speak to any one. To the last she refused to name her successor. Asked if James of Scotland, Mary’s son, should succeed her, a slight motion of the head was all 4 the sign of approval she gave. On the 24th March, 1603, England’s great queen died.