Subject Index
A
academic freedom, 4, 6, 7, 135, 212
accident, 21, 32, 69, 93, 115, 139, 141, 177, 178, 204
- also see: chance
accuracy, 17, 18, 20, 25, 27, 29, 45, 102, 103, 113,
- 114, 120, 122, 137, 146, 148, 175
- compared to precision, 20, 103
- definition of, 17
- quantitative, 148-151
- scientific value, 146, 148, 151
algebra, 7
analogy, see: comparison
anthropology, 98, 126, 136, 137
applied research, see: science - applied
astronomy, 1, 4, 6, 10, 44, 45, 68, 90, 98-101, 122, 151, 157, 188, 194, 208, 212
axiom, 4, 13
B
basic research, see: science - basic
bias, 5, 17-20, 25, 34, 35, 50, 51, 91, 114, 116, 118, 120, 125-127, 129, 131, 136-143, 148, 164, 165, 207
- removal via randomization, 19, 42, 67, 118
biology, 60, 90, 98, 139, 149, 151, 177, 178, 209
brain, 51, 132, 133, 142, 176, 177, 204
C
calibration, 18, 114
- standard, 102, 112, 118, 121
career, 165, 186, 189, 195, 199, 200, 206, 210, 211
causality, 7, 13, 43, 60-64, 68, 89, 90, 94, 118, 129,
- 136, 146, 157
- definitions of, 60-64
- determining cause and effect, 42, 60-67, 70, 89,
- 120
- scientific, 62-64
chance, 16, 19, 20, 21, 26, 30, 38, 41, 45, 46, 57, 72,
- 84, 97, 100, 101, 108, 114, 136, 140, 147, 159,
- 161, 171, 172, 178, 196, 206
- also see: accident
change
- artifical variation, 119
- detection of, 13, 15, 37, 65, 69, 139
- scientific, 1, 3, 6, 8, 9, 11, 161, 163, 164
- also see: experiment – changes to
chemistry, 9, 45, 151, 166, 206
classification, 4, 43, 45, 55, 84, 99
- classification statement, 75-82
- definition of, 44
- lumpers and splitters, 45
- us/them, 183
comparison, 43, 44, 61, 62, 115, 148
- analogy, 43, 44, 131, 132, 137, 156, 163, 167, 174
- symmetry, 31, 32, 43, 80
competition, 194
- competitive strategies, 203, 204
- cooperation and, 202-204
- industrial, 190
computers, 15, 34, 102, 116, 121, 122, 173, 205
- backups, 115
- information handling, 123
- software proficiency, 121, 198
- troubleshooting, 104, 105
concept, 12, 13, 136
concept map, 153-155
confidentiality, 190, 207
confirmation and refutation, 13, 94, 147, 150, 159, 160
- confirmation bias, 209, 138, 140, 142, 145
- conventionalism, 160
- definition of, 13, 20
- diagnostic experiment, 111, 123, 158, 159, 212
- falsificationism, 14, 156-158, 161
- justificationism, 156-158
- of hypotheses, 42, 146-148, 156-159, 164
- power of evidence, 46, 67, 68, 76, 147, 150, 157, 159, 161
- techniques of, 152
correlation, 43, 46, 55, 58, 60, 67-70, 119, 165
- causality and, 60, 65-70
- coincidence, 45, 46
- confidence levels for, 57
- correlation coefficient (R), 55-60
- rank correlation coefficient, 55, 59
creativity, see: insight
- curiosity, 8, 9, 198
D
data, 12
- accuracy, see: accuracy
- collection of, 136, 161, 162, 169
- definition of, 13
- handling, see: computers - information handling
- interpretation of, 140-142
- recording, 114, 119, 123
- reduction, 116
- rejection of, 121, 138, 140, 164
deduction: Chapter 4
- formal, 74, 75
- scientific, 71, 74
- square of opposition, 80, 81
- substitution, 77, 79
- Venn diagrams, 76, 78, 81
- also see: classification, fallacy, syllogism
dependent variable, 46, 112, 139
- definition of, 117
deviation, 55, 56
discovery, 17, 46, 139, 157, 162, 169, 173, 178, 179
- also see: insight
E
economics, 55, 63, 96
education, scientific, 1, 186, 192
empiricism, see: experiment
equation, 6, 150
equipment, see: instruments
error, 17, 55, 179
- checking, 16
- definition of, 16
- experimental design and, 18, 29
- mistake, 16, 17, 20, 71, 72, 86, 88, 102, 138, 139, 144, 151
- random, 17-19, 22, 23, 28, 36, 56, 118, 122
- statistics and, 25-30, 32, 56
- systematic, see: bias
- value of, 16
ethics, 32, 93, 201, 205, 206
evidence, evaluation of: Chapter 7
evolution, biological, 14, 17, 60, 62, 99, 133, 149, 157, 163, 170, 172, 186, 187, 200, 203, 204, 208, 209
experiment, 12-14, 16-18, 20, 64, 83, 99, 117
- changes to, 37, 98, 100, 102, 105, 112-116, 118
- control group, 66, 118, 140
- control of variables, see: variable – control of
- definition of, 97
- diagnostic, see: confirmation and refutation – diagnostic experiment
- observation process, 131
- pilot, 102-104
- pitfalls, 98, 117, 137-141, 178
- planning, 16, 65, 72, 97, 98, 101, 113, 138
- replication, see: replication
- seizing an opportunity, 101
- troubleshooting, 104, 105, 109, 117
experimental design, 16, 18, 46, 64-66, 70, 79, 98, 100, 110-118, 121, 138-142, 148, 159, 160
- pitfalls, 137, 138
experimental science, see: science - experimental
experimental techniques: Chapter 5
explanation, scientific, see: causality, classification,
- comparison, concept, correlation
exploration, 9, 14, 105, 109
extrapolation, 18, 19, 51, 53-55, 60, 95, 96
F
facts, see: data
fallacy, 42, 44, 77, 82, 87, 91-96, 134, 156
falsifiability, see: confirmation and refutation falsifiability
fraud, 206
freedom, see: academic freedom
funding, see: science - funding
G
generalization, 4, 5, 13, 18, 20, 43, 45, 46, 73, 74, 87, 94-96, 127, 134, 136, 147, 156
genetics, 20
genius, see: intelligence
geography, 4, 96
geology, 99, 101, 144, 157, 177-179
goals of science, 2, 20, 43, 136, 143, 158, 175, 191, 207, 212
H
Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 130
histogram, 22, 23
history of science, 3-12
history of scientific methods, 3-12
hypothesis
- confirmation, see: confirmation and refutation – of hypotheses
- creation of, 10, 12, 14, 42, 44, 46, 99, 143, 148, 156, 176, 177
- definition of, 13
- experiment and, 10, 13, 99
- method defined, 13, 14
- modification of, 17, 68, 159-162, 165
- null, 30, 43
- predictions of, 14, 151
- refutation of, 10, 14, 42, 64, 94, 156-160
- reinforcement, 128, 138, 164
- testing of, 12-14, 30, 46, 64, 66, 68, 71, 72, 74, 86, 89, 90, 100, 111, 123, 124, 138, 146-149, 151, 153, 156-160, 164, 165, 188, 200
- hypothetico-deductive method, 13, 82
I
ideal class, 45
imagination, see: insight
independent variable, 46, 108, 139
- definition of, 117
induction: Chapter 3
- scientific, 42, 86
industrial research, see: science - applied
innovation, see: insight
insight: Chapter 8
- characteristics of, 170, 173, 177
- concentration and, 176
- conviction of truth, 174
- factors fostering, 6, 44, 45, 99, 115, 117, 139, 171173, 176, 178-180, 200
- inhibiting factors, 173, 174, 179
- joy of, 170, 180-182, 210, 212
inspiration, see: insight
instrument, 101, 102
- borrowing or buying, 112
- computer interface, 102
- drift, 36, 112, 118, 121, 137
- new vs. used, 102
- prototype, 103
- troubleshooting, 104-109, 117
- use, 112
intelligence, 69, 184, 199, 200
- artificial, 148
- IQ, 142, 200
interpolation, 53-55, 60
invention, see: discovery, insight
J
jargon, scientific, 163, 184
journals, see: literature
judgment, 10, 11, 146, 160, 205
- values, 147-151
justificationism, see: confirmation and refutation-justificationism
K
kinship theory, 203
knowledge, 2, 5, 6, 8, 211, 212
- new, 7, 153, 161
- objective, 2, 125, 135, 137, 145
- organized, 155
- reliable, 2, 14, 96, 136, 160, 191
- specialized, 192
- useful, 2, 189, 191
L
law, 4, 13, 61
- definition of, 13
- universal vs. statistical, 146
library, 7, 8
- of Alexandria, 5, 88
linear regression, see: statistics - linear regression
literature, scientific, 9
- publication, see: publication
- reading of, 2, 89, 123, 138, 147, 150, 188
logic: Chapters 3 & 4
- argument, 73
- deduction vs. induction, 73, 74
- definition of, 73
- logical equivalence, 64, 78, 79
- also see: deduction, induction
M
mathematical description of nature, 4, 7, 13, 148
mathematics, 76, 129, 194, 200, 208
- development of, 4, 6, 8, 10, 208
measurement types
- interval, 15
- nominal, 15
- ordinal, 15, 50, 55
- ratio, 15
medicine, 4, 67, 139, 191
memory, 131-134
meteorology, 178
Mill’s Canons, 64, 65, 72
- joint method of agreement and difference, 67
- method of agreement, 65
- method of concomitant variations, 67
- method of difference, 66
- method of residues, 67
model
- definition of, 13
- quantitative, 45, 100, 122
model/observation table, 152, 153
N
National Science Foundation, 104, 203
note taking, 104, 114, 115, 123, 155, 169, 208
numbers
- Arabic system, 7
- significant digits, 123
- also see: measurement types
O
objectivity, 2, 91, Chapter 6
- abandonment of, 144
- group, 143-145, 151
- individual subjectivity, 151
- lapse of, 89, 140-145, 164, 188
- myth of, 12, 125, 126, 137, 138, 141, 199
- perception and, see: perception
- postmodernism and, see: postmodernism
observational science, see: science - observational
Occam’s razor, 149
oceanography, 101, 106, 122, 178, 193
outline, 153
P
paradigm
- anomaly, 162
- change or overthrow, 162, 163, 209
- definition of, 161
- effects on hypotheses, 99, 162
- effects on scientific change, 161, 162
- examples of, 11, 59, 161, 164, 178, 207, 208
- pitfalls, 164, 165
- pre-paradigm, 161, 188
- testing paradigm, 158
pattern recognition: Chapter 3
perception, 125
- assumptions of, 62, 129
- bias of, 125-129, 139
- expectation and, 125, 126, 128, 129, 135
- memory and, 131-135
- schema, 44, 132-135, 177
philosophy, 4, 136
philosophy of science, 1, 2, 10, 12-14, 61, 72, 143, 146, 156, 157, 159, 163, 164, 188
physical science, 15, 62, 125, 164, 189, 194
physics, 10, 11, 20, 44, 59, 61, 63, 125, 129, 130, 132, 146, 149, 161, 178, 179, 187, 194, 206, 208
pilot study, 27, 29, 102, 103
plagiarism, 207
planning, see: experiment - planning
plotting of data, 36, 50
- plotting hints, 52, 53
postmodernism, 135, 136
- postmodern critique, 135, 136
precision, 17, 18, 20, 26, 27, 102, 103, 113, 120, 122, 143
- definition of, 17
prediction, 13, 14, 20, 43, 139, 147, 148, 156, 160, 162, 164
preparation, 98, 111, 169-171
probability, 20, 108
- combined, 21
- definition of, 20
- logical, 156
problem
- problem solving methods, 104, 105, 109, 169, 171-173, 180
- recurrence of, 109
- reformulation of, 64, 111
- setback, 98
- statement of, 111, 171
proof, 160
pseudoscience, 187, 188
psychology, 55, 96, 98, 100, 118, 126, 139, 181, 188
publication
- case studies of, 207-210
- concept mapping of, 154
- necessity of, 197, 207
- pitfalls, 140, 209
- productivity, 198, 205
- style, 12, 123, 140, 184, 205, 207
- writing, 155
pure research, see: science - basic
puzzle solving, 180, 181
R
random sampling, see: sampling - random
Raven’s Paradox, 158
reading, see: literature – reading of
regression analysis, see: statistics – linear regression
reliability, 18, 20
religion, 5, 6
- Christianity, 5-9, 88
- Islam, 6-9
- relationship to science, 8, 9, 60
replicatability, 17, 20, 188
replicate measurements, 17, 18, 20, 22, 66, 105, 113, 123
replication of experiments, 20, 27, 101, 142, 143, 145, 206
representative sampling, see: sampling representative
research, see: experiment, experimental design, experimental technique, science
S
sampling
distribution, see: statistics - normal distribution function
- independent, 36, 55
- nonrepresentative, 18, 94, 96
- random, 19, 113, 118
- representative, 18, 19, 42, 46, 156
- stratification, 19
science: Chapter 9
applied, 2, 6, 8, 103, 150, 151, 185, 189-192, 194, 195, 206
- arts and, 9, 187
- basic, 2, 103, 185, 189-192, 194, 195, 206
- big and little, 193, 194
- comparison of basic and applied, 189-191
- experimental, 5, 8, 10-14, 68, 99, 101, 162, 194
- funding, 191-193
- history of, 3-12
- lay perspective, 183-187
- observational, 98-100, 194
- scope, 14
- theoretical, 10, 194
scientific freedom, see: academic freedom
scientific instruments, see: instruments
scientific literature, see: literature
scientific method
- myth of, 12
- summary of, 12, 13, 169
- variety of, 12, 14, 100, 188
scientific pecking order, 194, 195
scientific progress, 13, 14, 74, 113, 123, 136, 146, 150, 151, 162, 164, 194, 198, 201
scientific research, see: science
scientist: Chapter 10
- egotism, 195
- motivations, 184, 210-212
- personal characteristics, 184, 197-202
- variety of, 12
search procedure, 104-109
social science, 15, 19, 20, 54, 60, 62, 69, 96, 118, 136, 141, 189, 194
society and science, 189, 190
sociology, 70, 96, 136, 139, 188
standard, see: calibration
statistics: Chapters 2 & 3
- arithmetic mean, 32
- Chauvenet’s criterion, 33, 35, 41
- confidence limits, 18, 25-27, 33-35
- correlation, see: correlation
- degrees of freedom, 31
- geometric mean, 32
- harmonic mean, 32
- linear regression, 55-60
- mean, 23-27, 31, 34, 35
- median, 33-35
- nonlinear relationships, 58, 60
- nonparametric, 30, 32-37, 59
- normal distribution function, 23, 24
- parametric, 30, 32-37, 50
- pitfalls, 29
- probability, see: probability
- propagation of errors, 28, 29
- quartile, 34
- range of data, 34, 51, 60
- rejecting anomalous data, 32, 33, 35
- skewness, 30, 31, 41
- standard deviation, 23-27, 34
- standard error, 25-27
- standardize, 31
- variance, 24, 26
- weighting, 26, 35, 56
- χ2 test, 30, 31
stereotype, 127
syllogism, 4, 5, 72, 82-85
- categorical, 83, 84
- hypothetical, 85, 86
- substitution, 84
symmetry, see: comparison - symmetry
systematic error, see: bias
T
technology
- economic effects of research, 190, 191
- effects on science, 101, 163, 179, 186
- predictions, 8
- relation to science, 4, 6, 185, 186, 190
- side effects, 185, 186
- transfer, 192
testing, see: hypothesis – testing of
textbook science, 147, 161, 186, 188, 192, 210
theoretical science, see: science - theoretical
theory, 148, 160
- definition of, 13
time series, 52-55, 60
troubleshooting, see: experiment – troubleshooting, instrument - troubleshooting
V
values, 184, 187, 201
- judgment, 146-151, 160
variable
- causal, 18, 46, 60-69, 117, 165
- control of, 8, 11, 12, 63, 66, 89, 98-100, 103, 108, 112, 117-119, 138, 163
- definition of, 13, 15
- dependent, see: dependent variable
- explanation of, 43
- independent, see: independent variable
- intervening, 69
- isolation of, 20, 62, 103, 112, 117, 119, 143, 146
- measurement, see: measurement types, data
- quantification, 15
- relations among, 13, 15, 22, 43, 46, 50, 53-60, 119
- significant, 27
- uncontrolled, 18, 105, 116-118
- unknown, 7, 18, 20, 32, 37, 118
verification, see: confirmation and refutation
W
work
- intensity of, 197, 198
- satisfaction, 200