The Development of Navies During the Last Half-Century/Chapter 12
CHAPTER XII
FOREIGN NAVIES — EUROPE
Condition of French Navy in 1840 — Progress after Franco-German War — Broadside and Barbette Construction — Cruisers — The Russian Flee — Influence of the 'Monitor' — New Departure — Black Sea and Baltic Squadrons — Belted Cruisers — Italy — Creation of a New Fleet after 1870 — Monster Ironclads — Cruisers — Germany — Late develop-ment of Navy — New Battle Ships and Cruisers — Austria, Spain, Greece, and Turkey.
Notwithstanding the signal defeats inflicted upon the navy of France at the beginning of this century, she has regained her position as a maritime power, and now possesses a fleet only second to our own. Though in the interval the country has passed through various political phases, involving changes from a monarchy to a republic, the long and glorious traditions of a navy, founded by Richelieu and consolidated by Colbert, have survived, and are the mainspring of that efficiency which we see to-day. Fleets may disappear but traditions survive, and in reconstruction play an important part. How notable this has been in the case of France. Stunned by the blows inflicted on her at sea in all parts of the world, she for some years after the peace of 1815 made no attempt to resuscitate her navy. But in 1820 the country was roused when the Minister of Marine suggested 'to abandon the institution to save the expense, or to increase the expenses to save the institution.'A sum of £20,000,000 sterling was granted, the expenditure of which was to be spread over eleven years. Such progress was made that in 1840, when relations between France and England were strained over the Syrian question, and our fleet had been suffered to fall below its proper strength, eminent French naval officers considered their country fully equal to coping with us at sea. They had in the Mediterranean at this time in Admiral Lalande an officer of great ability and energy, who, it is said, asked permission to attack the British Squadron. But more peaceful counsels prevailed, and we, profiting by the lesson, sent out reinforcements to our undermanned ships. At this time the equipment of French vessels was superior to ours, and their crews were in a high state of efficiency.
When, however, steam superseded sails the position we at once assumed in the construction of steam machinery gave us an advantage, which was apparent at the outbreak of the Crimean War. We had a greater number of steamers, and provided transports to convey French troops for the attack on Bomarsund. France undoubtedly was the first to construct sea-going ironclads, a policy we at first thought folly and then were constrained to follow. Their early ironclads were of the type I have already mentioned, but the expense of such vessels and the time required for their construction prevents the formation of modern fleets in a few years. During the Crimean War a wooden line of-battle ship had been built, equipped, and sent to sea in ninety days. Under the new system a nation cannot thus rapidly reinforce its fleet; and when war broke out in 1870 between France and Germany the fleet of the former was unable to effect any serious diversion in the Baltic. There had been some idea at first of landing a French force in that locality under cover of the fleet, but there was no organisation for such an expedition. The opportunity passed, and the squadron despatched to the Baltic could do little more than blockade the coast until recalled home. The crews then assisted in the defence of Paris, and the naval contingent performed excellent service during the siege.
After this war France steadily set to work to augment her fleet. Between 1872 and 1886 several programmes of shipbuilding were drawn up, and no less than £18,000,000 were devoted to new construction. Practically the French fleet of to-day is the creation of the last twenty years, for nearly all the ships launched previously to 1870 have been removed from the list. Unlike ourselves, the French up to that period adhered to wooden hulls, whose life is limited. One or two remain, and among them the 'Marengo,' which as flagship of the Northern Squadron lately visited our shores.
In 1872 was commenced the first large battle ship built after the war. This was the 'Redoutable.' She was built of iron, with a displacement of 9200 tons. Then followed the 'Devastation' and 'Courbet,' of 10,100 and 9700 tons. The armament in all was disposed in the same way: a central battery, with a 
It will be observed that, whereas we usually mount our heavy guns in pairs, our neighbours prefer to place them singly. By this they gain an additional position at the sacrifice of one gun. The balance between the two systems appears to be equal. Then, from the first, the French have adhered to the complete armour belt, leaving a large area of the side above unprotected. The weak point of this is that shells exploding beneath the platforms on which the heavy guns are mounted would probably put them out of action.
The satisfactory reports of the 'Admiral Baudin' and 'Formidable' have led to three others of similar construction being commenced. They are to be of 12,000 tons displacement, and hence the largest vessels yet designed in France. Whether they will be exceeded remains to be seen. Their names are to be 'Lazare Carnot,' 'Charles Martel,' and 'Jauréguiberry.' Of similar type, but smaller, are the 'Magenta,' 'Marceau,' and 'Neptune.' They carry four 52-ton guns, in separate barbettes.
But though France has been steadily adding to the number and power of her battle ships proper she has been no less assiduous in augmenting the class designed for coast defence. While for such craft we had stopped, in the 'Glatton,' at dimensions within 4000 tons, the French completed several between the years 1860 and 1880 varying from 4000 to 6000 tons. Then came the 'Caiman,' 'Indomptable,' 'Requin,' and 'Terrible,' of 7300 tons in which the principal armament is a 75-ton gun at each end, and the protection by armour has a maximum thickness on the belt of 17½ in. Such vessels are battle ships to all intents and purposes, though perhaps not suitable for service in distant waters. Three others, of 6600 tons, the 'Tréhouart,' 'Jemmapes,' and 'Valmy' are building. These are to have a 50-ton gun in a turret at each end. We thus see that France has abstained from following the example first set by Italy of building ships of extreme size and equipping them with monster ordnance. The 75-ton gun is the largest she has afloat.
While we had been hampered in the production of fast steam cruisers by the endeavour to give them good sailing qualities as well, the French clearly recognised, twenty years ago, that sail power must be sacrificed and longer vessels built to give speed under steam. This was carried out in two vessels, the 'Sané' and 'Seignelay,' launched respectively in 1870 and 1874, where with a displacement of 1900 tons a speed of 15 knots was obtained. The steam speed of our cruisers of that size rarely exceeded 13 knots.
But after 1880 a great impetus was given to the construction of fast cruisers in France when Admiral Aube was Minister of Marine. He had previously advocated raids on territory and commerce by light forces when at war with a powerful maritime nation whose battle ships were too numerous to cope with. A great number of unarmoured ships were then laid down, several of which are now complete. The 'Tage,' of 7000 tons, is the largest. Her armament consists of sixteen guns, and her speed is 19 knots. The 'Cecille' is another fine vessel, of 5700 tons, with a similar equipment. Neither has external armour, but both have horizontal protection in a steel deck over the machinery and fore and aft the vessel. Then experiments with melinite, an explosive of great power used as the bursting charge of shells, caused ideas to revert to the old system of complete external armour to keep out some of these projectiles, their very destructive effect being clearly demonstrated. The 'Dupuy de Lôme,' named after the eminent naval architect, embodies this principle. Of only 6400 tons, she is coated externally with 4-in. steel plates. This will keep out all small projectiles. A number of other vessels between 2000 and 5000 tons are approaching completion. In all high speed has been considered the chief essential. The armament is usually lighter than that which we give to vessels of similar dimensions, but many of our officers think that in this respect we have gone to an extreme in several instances.
For scouting duties with a fleet France has produced an excellent class of vessel of 19 knots speed and 1850 tons, as in the 'Forbin,' 'Surcouf,' and four others. In the special type of small vessel for counter-attacking torpedo boats that country was first with the 'Bombe' class, of 350 tons. An increased size has, however, been found desirable.
As regards torpedo boats, France possesses a large number, and is steadily adding to it. Their special function is coast defence, and all nations now recognise that squadrons are only impeded if torpedo boats are attached to them. As for the idea that torpedo boats 
Gun with shield on Le Redoutable
The Crimean War found Russia but little advanced in the substitution of steam for sailing ships in her navy, and she was not prepared to meet at sea either the Baltic or Black Sea Squadrons of the allies. At the close of that war efforts were made to recover her old position among the maritime states, and several screw vessels were built. Then when France and England began to produce seagoing ironclads, two Russian wooden ships then building, the 'Sebastopol' and 'Petropaulowski,' were converted into armoured frigates, with 4½-in. iron plates. About this time, however, the naval events of the Civil War in America brought the 'Monitor' type prominently into favour in Russia. Ten monitors, on Ericsson’s plans, were ordered in 1863, when Europe seemed inclined to intervene on behalf of Poland. These monitors were built in the Baltic. Then came the Franco-German War and the declaration of Russia in reference to shipbuilding in the Black Sea, but it was some years before Russia was in a position to carry out the construction of battle ships in the southern ports. Moreover, the influence of the monitor was still paramount, and the fleet consisted chiefly of coast defence vessels. Under this influence the circular ironclads, which I have already alluded to, were built. When, therefore, war broke out with Turkey the ironclads of the latter power held a command of the Black Sea which Russia was not in a position to dispute. But in 1880 it was decided to re-create the battle fleet of Russia. A programme was drawn up for a course of shipbuilding in all classes, which was to extend over a period of twenty years. After unavoidable delays a start was made in 1882. As a result we now find in the Black Sea three powerful ironclads completed, named the 'Tchesmé,' 'Sinope,' and 'Catherine II.' They each carry six 50-ton guns, and are fairly well protected with armour; the principle favoured in France of a complete water line belt being adopted. Other battle ships are in course of construction. As Turkey has allowed her former fine fleet to fall into decay, and has added to it no powerful ships, it is evident that as between these two powers command of the Black Sea rests with Russia to-day. This should be clearly recognised, for the condition has now reverted to what it was just previously to Sinope.
In the Baltic several useful types of battle ships have been completed, such as the 'Alexander II.' and 'Nicholas I.,' of 8500 tons, a displacement adapted to the shallow waters of the north. But it is in the construction of cruisers that Russia has shown the greatest ability and energy. The special type favoured is the belted cruiser of between 6000 and 8000 tons for distant stations. Of these there are three, the 'Vladimir-Monomakh,' 'Dimitri-Donskoi,' and 'Admiral Nachimoff,' with a speed of between 15 and 16 knots, of which our 'Imperieuse' and 'Warspite' may be considered the rivals. The latest completed is the 'Pamyat Azova,' of 6000 tons, with a 6-in. belt and a speed of 18 knots. Under construction is a very large vessel of 10,500 tons, to be called the 'Rurik,' with a 10-in. belt, powerful armament, high speed, and large coal supply. Now, when cruisers are built of these dimensions, and carrying such an amount of offensive and defensive equipment, it is evident they are not far removed from battle ships. Our 'Admiral' class, of similar tonnage, may be equally employed as cruisers, and thus the tendency is to jumble all up together until a war demonstrates how the classes should be differentiated — a word I should like to dispense with but cannot find a substitute. It is curious to observe the fidelity with which Russia has adhered to external armour instead of relying upon protective decks, as we have done in the 'Blake' and 'Blenheim.' Of smaller cruisers few lately have been added to her fleet. It is no doubt considered that more effect can be produced by a few vessels of great power than by distributing the force among a larger number of inferior ships.
Russia was one of the earliest states to perceive the valuable assistance that torpedo boats could afford when the coast is menaced by a hostile squadron. In their war against Turkey little was done in this respect, because the Russian torpedo boats were small and inefficiently equipped. As a result of this experience they obtained a boat from Mr Yarrow which was the pioneer of a larger type. This boat, the 'Batoum,’ 100 ft. long, steamed out to the Black Sea in 1880 by herself. She has been followed by others of slightly larger dimensions.
In viewing the development of their navies by the different maritime states it is curious to observe how their relative positions have been altered since the beginning of the century. In some instances less than half a century has sufficed to place a country in the foremost rank. Such an example we have in Italy. No country has shown such boldness, originality, and energy in the creation of her fleet. The lesson at Lissa was only an incentive to renewed exertion, and to-day she can justly boast of being able to place in the line of battle a squadron which only two nations of the world can surpass. Yet this has been the work of only twenty years. The earlier ironclads of Italy were those I have enumerated as taking part in the action off Lissa. Then after 1870 two were commenced, the 'Duilio' and 'Dandolo,' similar in design to our 'Inflexible.' They were the first to carry afloat guns of 100 tons, two of which were placed in each of the turrets. They were muzzle-loaders, and made by Armstrong’s firm at Elswick. One of these vessels was designed to carry a torpedo boat in a compartment of the stern to which the sea had access. It was a floating boathouse from which the parasite could emerge when desired, and be received back into it when her mission was accomplished. The idea was original but not practical, and it was soon found that at sea getting the boat in and out safely was 
up, and the incident is mentioned as showing that in Italy novel ideas have a chance of being tested.
But in the 'Duilio' and 'Dandolo' Italy did not consider she had reached the maximum of useful efficiency. There was a strong party in favour of individual ships of great power, and their arguments carried the day. The result was an increase to a displacement of 13,800 tons, in two vessels called the 'Italia' and 'Lepanto,' and an entire change in their design. External armour was abandoned, and it was all placed inside the vessel, in a stout deck, round the bases of the funnels, and in a breastwork enclosing the heavy guns. These consisted of four 100-ton breech-loaders, placed in an elongated barbette or redoubt built across the ship, and supported by bulkheads. This structure, with armament, weighs about 2500 tons, and therefore we see a ship not ironclad carrying on her hull the equivalent weight of a cruiser. Machinery of enormous power drives these huge structures at a speed of 18 knots, and they are capable of stowing 1600 tons of coal, which at a speed of 10 knots an hour would enable them to cover about 8000 nautical miles. They are magnificent specimens of naval architecture, but have, in my opinion, a serious defect This is the absence of external armour, which renders them liable to receive serious damage underneath the structure carrying the heavy guns. The stability of this structure might be compromised by the fire of numerous light guns. Next to these two in size are three vessels of 13,200 tons, the 'Re Umberto,' 'Sardegna,' and 'Sicilia,' which in arrangement are more like our new first-class battle ships. They carry four 67-ton guns, placed in pairs in a barbette at each end of the ship, but the principle of omitting all thick external armour is still adopted. Then there are three others, the 'Andrea Doria,' 'Ruggiero di Lauria,' and 'Francesco Morosini,' of 11,000 tons, somewhat similar to the 'Duilio' and 'Dandolo,' but carrying four 105-ton breech-loading guns in a central redoubt instead of in turrets. Thus Italy possesses ten ironclads of 11,000 tons and upwards, of which all but two are equipped with the most modern artillery and machinery.
She has been equally enterprising with cruisers and smaller vessels. In the 'Piemonte,' built by Sir William Armstrong's firm, she acquired, with the moderate dimensions of 2500 tons, a vessel capable of steaming 20 knots in smooth water without unduly pressing the machinery. This also was associated with a very powerful armament of quick-firing guns. There has been a tendency to overload such vessels with guns, and in the case of the 'Piemonte' my impression on seeing her was that a lighter armament would be more suitable to her dimensions.
Of torpedo-catchers Italy has several of 750 tons and a speed of 20 knots. In this type the experiment was tried of employing three screws to obtain greater speed, for which the 'Tripoli' was selected. But the result was not favourable. It is possible that in a vessel of large size a screw in the centre and one on each side of the stern may answer, but in a small ship they must 
Naturally with such an extent of coast line Italy has a great number of torpedo boats, and the organisation for their use in time of war is very complete. Italy may be justly proud of the navy she has created in twenty years, and her naval officers display a proficiency in handling this materiel which is the result of unremitting zeal and industry.
Thirty years ago the navy of the kingdom of Prussia was numerically inferior to that of Austria, but the German Empire is now fast becoming a prominent maritime power. In 1889 a German squadron of iron-clads came to England which, though not composed of vessels of large dimensions or latest design, showed in its organisation and the method in which it was handled that the same attention had been given to detail in naval matters as characterises its military department. Up to the present time the largest ironclad is the 'König Wilhelm,' of 9600 tons, of the belt and central battery type, like the 'Hercules' in the British navy. She was launched as far back as 1868, when that system was prominently in favour. Contemporary with this ship are the 'Kaiser' and ' Deutschland,' of 7700 tons, and a few others of smaller dimensions. A later class, composed of the 'Baden,' 'Bayern,' 'Sachsen,' and 'Wurttemberg,' launched between 1877 and 1880, are of 7400 tons, with a central citadel and armament of six 18-ton Krupp guns. The armour on the side only covers the central portion, wherein are located the machinery and heavy guns, but it is 16 in. thick.
For some years after the completion of these vessels no more ironclads were laid down, until the activity of other nations in adding to their fleets spurred Germany to further effort. She could not view with indifference the steps taken by Russia to create a powerful Baltic Squadron. Accordingly, three years ago, a programme of construction was framed, the most important part of which was the completion of four new ironclads of 10,000 tons each. The design selected is somewhat similar to that adopted in late French battle ships — a complete armour belt and three barbettes on the middle line, each containing a pair of 11-in. guns. Between the foremost and middle barbette is the auxiliary broadside battery of light guns. The maximum thickness of belt is 16 in., and it tapers to 11 in. at the ends. These vessels are to have a speed of 16 knots, and all are being built in Germany. Their weak point appears to be the absence of any protection above the belt on the side; but the best distribution of a given weight of armour is a matter about which all experts differ. The distribution of heavy guns in three independent positions seems an excellent one, and provision is made for a high freeboard forward, so that the foremost barbette will have a commanding position. The largest gun mounted afloat in Germany weighs 35 tons, and this pattern is only placed in armoured gunboats. It is considered that for battle ships ordnance of about 25 tons is suflficiently powerful and can be most conveniently handled.
Under the new programme a number of fast cruisers are building, and a few have been completed. The largest type are to be 5500 tons, with a 9-in. bow arid stern chaser gun, and eight 6-in. guns on the broadside. They will have a steel protective deck and a speed of 20. knots. The 'Irene,' the first fast cruiser completed, is of 4300 tons, armed with fourteen 6-in. guns, and has a speed of 18 knots. Others are in course of construction. Germany has paid much attention to the organisation of an efficient defence by torpedo boats, and carries out continuous exercise with them in the Baltic and North Sea.
After the Franco-German War two generals in succession were charged with the administration and reorganisation of the German Navy. It was desired that as far as possible the regulations should be assimilated to those of the army, with special regard to the mobilisation of land and sea forces when required. General von Stosch was first selected for Chief of the Admiralty, and on his resignation General von Caprivi was appointed to the post. Both were well known as able organisers, and the result is that all the arrangements for naval mobilisation are as complete as those for the army, and at a word the fleet can be placed on a war footing, ready to perform any service assigned to it. An admiral is now at the head of the Naval Department.
The great advance made by Germany and Italy in maritime strength has overshadowed the more modest progress in this direction made by Austria. The army has the first claim upon the national purse, and but a small amount can be spared for the fleet. It speaks highly of the management of her naval affairs that, with an annual expenditure of barely £2,000,000 sterling, Austria can show a small but efficient naval force. Her largest ironclad is the 'Tegethoff,' of 7500 tons, launched in 1878. She is of the 'Hercules' type – a broadside battery ship, with recessed sides to give fore and aft fire. Austria has seven others of smaller size, of which the most powerful is the 'Crown Prince Rudolph,' of 7000 tons, launched in 1887, and armed with three 48-ton guns and six 4½-in. guns. The 'Princess Stephanie,' of 5000 tons, also launched in 1887, is similar in design, but less powerfully armed. The largest cruisers are three of 4000 tons of the deck protected type. Two torpedo cruisers, the 'Leopard' and 'Panther,' of 1550 tons, were built for Austria by Sir William Armstrong's firm. They have a speed of 18 knots.
The torpedo flotilla consists of some thirty boats, of which the greater number are of about 80 tons displacement.
Spain, once the great maritime state of Europe, has within recent years begun to rehabilitate her fleet. In addition to one ironclad – the 'Pelayo' of 10,000 tons – she has six others building of 7000 tons, and one or two fast cruisers.
Even Greece has been unable to withstand the desire to rank as a naval power, and has lately had three ironclads built in France of about 5000 tons displacement.
Turkey alone seems indifferent to the advantages conferred by an efficient naval force. Under the rule of Abdul Aziz a powerful fleet guarded the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. When invaded by Russia, a supremacy in the Black Sea prevented any transport of troops by that route. But the present Sultan appears to have a greater belief in fixed defences, and his ships lie idly at their moorings, disuse making sad havoc in equipment and machinery. The Black Sea will in future be closed to a Turkish Squadron if hostilities again arise between the two countries, while it is doubtful whether at sea Turkey could now meet Greece. There is, however, still time to do a great deal towards preserving some of the old efficiency – not by tinkering at and altering the older ironclads, as Turkey is ill-advisedly doing, but by keeping what she has got in thorough order, and devoting a small sum annually towards new construction.
- ↑ French ironclads no longer carry yards and sails. The illustration shows the 'Duperré' as originally completed.