The Story of Bohemia/Chapter 2

by Frances Gregor

Chapter II.

FROM THE INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY TO THE REIGN OF PREMYSL OTTOKAR II.

BEGINNING OF CHRISTIANITY IN BOHEMIA.

In regard to Christianity. Bohemia was more fortunate than the German States around her. She received the new religion through instruction, and not, as they had, at the point of the sword.

The first historical account referring to this important subject is that fourteen Bohemian lords went to Ratisbon, and, after being properly instructed, were baptized. It is not even known who these lords were; and yet their action was most important and far-reaching in its consequences. When Christianity was introduced into the country, the Bohemian Church, by virtue of the action of these lords, was placed under the jurisdiction of the bishop of Ratishon, hence under German influence; and it was through this same influence that the Latin ritual, which the people did not understand, was substituted for the Slavic, which was their mother-tongue.

During the reign of Louis the Pious, both Bohemia and Moravia had peace; but when, at the treaty of Verdun, 843, the empire was divided among the three brothers, all was changed. Louis I, king of Germany, was an enemy of the Slavs, and constantly made war upon them. Not finding Moimir as subservient to his wishes as he desired, he invaded his country, deposed the great ruler, giving the government of Moravia to Rostislav, the nephew of the unfortunate prince.

Thus far, all the knowledge that the Moravians possessed of Christianity came from the Germans; but this was quite meager, and the ruler and people were anxious to receive more instruction. Although Rostislav had received many favors at the hands of the German king, he was suspicious of the purity of his motives, and therefore did not wish to turn to Germany in this matter. Finally, it was decided to turn for help to the East. Rostislav sent an embassy to Emperor Michael, of Constantinople, beseeching him to send him Christian teachers. The message they delivered contained the following passages: “The land, indeed, is baptized; but we have no teachers to instruct us and translate to us the sacred books. We understand neither the Greek nor the Latin tongue. Some teach us one thing, and some another; consequently, we know not what to believe. Therefore, we beseech thee to send us teachers who can explain to us the words and meaning of the Scripture.”

Wherever the Greeks introduced Christianity, they gave the people the Church service in their mother-tongue, while the teachers sent by the authority of Rome gave it in Latin; and as quite often little more than the service was read, the people remained totally ignorant as to its meaning.

At the time when the embassy was sent to Constantinople, there dwelt in Thessalonica a patrician family, whose head was Leo. This Leo had two sons, Cyril and Methodus, who were renowned for their learning and piety. Being well versed, not only in the classical languages, but also in the various Slavic dialects, they were able to carry the gospel to the neighboring nations—in fact, were the great missionaries of their day. One great and difficult work that they accomplished was to translate the Bible into Bulgarian, this being still the authorized version for all Slavic dialects. It has the same relation to modern Slavic that Gothic has to German.

When the Moravian embassy laid their petition before the emperor, he was so pleased that he decided to send them as missionaries both Cyril and Methodus, the greatest lights of his Church; and they did not come alone, but brought with them a large number of Slavic disciples. The people were filled with joy when they heard both the Scripture and the Church service in a language that they could understand.

The small missionary band labored with such diligence that, in about four years, all the inhabitants of Moravia, having had the word explained to them, laid aside their heathen practices and became Christians, not only in form, but also in reality.

The brilliant success of this missionary enterprise excited the jealousy of the German priesthood. They complained to the pope that heresy was taught in Moravia; that Church services were held in the Slavic tongue, when it was well known that there were only three tongues in which it was proper to hold such services; viz., Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. Cyril and Methodus were accordingly cited to appear at Rome to justify themselves of the imputed heresy. But when Pope Adrian II heard their case, he not only approved of it, but sent them back to continue the good work. But before leaving Rome, Cyril was taken ill, and sought refuge in a monastery. Seeing that his end was drawing nigh, he called his brother to him and said: “Behold, brother, thus far we have labored together, drawing the plow in the same furrow; now I fall by the wayside, ending my life. But thou remain in the work of salvation, and let not love for thy home turn thee aside.”

Methodus returned to Moravia, and continued his missionary labors; and Christianized Moravia was not without its influence upon pagan Bohemia. The new doctrine gradually spread in that country, and the year 873 marks the time when it may be said to have been formally introduced. In that year, Methodus baptized the Bohemian prince Borivoi, together with his wife, Ludmila, who were then tarrying at the Moravian court. Ludmila became a most devoted Christian, being very zealous in her labors to spread and strengthen the new faith. On account of her goodness, her charity, and humble life, she was greatly beloved by all the people.

SWATOPLUK AND BORIVOI.

In the early days of the history of the country. Bohemia and Moravia were so closely connected that one can not intelligently understand the events in the one country without some knowledge of those in the other.

It was related in a previous chapter how the Germans invaded Moravia, deposed Moimir, and placed his nephew Rostislav upon the throne. Intoxicated by their brilliant success, they determined to march home across Bohemia, without even asking permission of the ruler of that country. Very probably, they counted upon the favor of the fourteen lords who had been baptized in Ratisbon, for this was before the baptism of the Bohemian prince. The Bohemians, highly indignant that a hostile army dared cross their territory, hastily collected a large army, fell upon the Germans, and defeated them so that they fled, leaving rich spoils in the hands of the victors.

The result of this was a war with Germany that lasted four years. Both parties finally becoming weary of the struggle, the Bohemians sent envoys to the German camp to treat of peace. During the armistice, the worn-out soldiers relaxed their vigilance, and the wily Germans, taking advantage of this, suddenly fell upon them, expecting thus to gain an easy victory. But this foul treachery so maddened the troops that they fell upon the enemy with great fury, and, after a fierce battle, completely defeated them. The Germans were compelled to give up their arms, to leave a large number of hostages, and to return to their country by the way the Bohemians prescribed.

We now return to Moravia. When Louis deposed Moimir, giving the throne to Rostislav, he thought he was gaining a powerful ally; but in this he was mistaken. From the time Rostislav assumed the government, his one aim was to make his country independent of the Germans. He improved the country, extended its boundaries by annexation of the neighboring States; and, in fact, sought to establish a powerful Slavic State. He was, however, unfortunate in that he was not able to arouse the same ambition in his lords; and, in what was still worse, in meeting with treachery in his own family. His nephew Swatopluk, an ambitious young man, formed a plot to deprive his uncle of the throne. To this end, he entered into an understanding with Carloman, who succeeded Louis, promising to deliver Rostislav into the power of the German ruler. Although the unfortunate ruler discovered the plot, and tried to turn the tables against his perfidious nephew, he was not successful. Swatopluk took him prisoner, and delivered him into the hands of his arch-enemy, Carloman, who put out his eyes and shut him up in a monastery.

The treachery of Swatopluk did not bring him the reward he had expected. The Germans, fearing he would not be any more loyal to them than he had been to his own king, found a pretext for charging him with treason, and cast him into prison to await his trial. In the meantime they again invaded Moravia, causing fearful destruction of life and property. The people, driven to despair, roused all their energies, chose able leaders, and began to defend their country with considerable success. The Germans, in this dilemma, conceived the plan of placing Swatopluk upon the throne, and thus having an ally in that country. They, therefore, began to show him every consideration to heal his wounded spirit. He received their kindness with so much apparent pleasure that Carloman was deceived, and trusted him so far as to place him in command of a large army that was to march against Moravia. As soon as the army reached the walls of Welehrad, Swatopluk entered the fortress under a flag of truce. No sooner did he find himself alone with his countrymen, than he cast aside all dissimulation and explained to them the purpose of his visit. He acknowledged his crime against his uncle, asked their forgiveness, and agreed to make restitution by delivering the whole German army into their hands.

The prospect of becoming rid of their enemies so easily was too tempting to be rejected; therefore, the Moravian lords gladly overlooked Swatopluk’s former crimes, and accepted him as their lawful ruler. Their army then fell upon the unsuspecting Germans, and defeated them with great slaughter. There was mourning all through Germany, in Austria, Bavaria, Carinthia, and other States; for there was scarcely a hamlet where there was not a son, brother, or husband missing.

Swatopluk knew full well that the Germans would not leave his treachery unavenged; and he at once began to put his country in a state of defense. To obtain the assistance of Bohemia, he allied himself with the ruler of that country by marrying his sister. There was little time to spare; for even while the wedding party was on its way to Moravia, it was attacked by the Germans, but fortunately escaped with a loss of some six hundred horses.

The following year two large armies invaded Bohemia and Moravia at the same time. The Bohemian army, commanded by the Prince Borivoi, having under him five of his lords, was defeated by the Germans and driven as far as the river Moldau. The Moravians were more successful. Although no decisive victory was won, the enemy finally left the country. The next year, Swatopluk himself invading the territory of Carloman, marching as far as the river Danube, peace was made, with quite favorable terms to the Moravians.

After this, Swatopluk was not again troubled by the Germans; and Bohemia, being under his protection, likewise enjoyed peace. He was a great and able ruler. He enlarged his dominions, so that they extended into Hungary, Silesia, and even as far as the city of Magdeburg.

His administration of justice was so severe, that to this day, in Moravia, “To seek for Swatopluk,” means to seek for justice. He died in 894.

The reign of Swatopluk was important, not because he extended his boundaries—for after his death these labors came to naught—but because, in his time, Christianity took deep root, both in Bohemia and Moravia. The great missionary, Methodus, was made the Bishop of Moravia; and, what meant a great deal in those days, the Pope took the Moravian Church under his special protection. This was to shield the Slavic priests against the attacks of the Germans, who constantly tried to bring the new Church under their own jurisdiction. How far their enmity extended may be judged from the fact that they dared to take so renowned a man as Methodus prisoner, keeping him, for a long time, confined in one of their monasteries.

ST. LUDMILA.

When Borivoi and his wife, Ludmila, embraced Christianity, the whole court followed the example set by the rulers, and Bohemia soon became a Christian country.

Ludmila and Borivoi had two sons, Spytihnév and Vratislav. The elder, Spytihnév, first ruled in Bohemia, and was followed by his brother Vratislav. Both brothers were very pious, caring more for the spread of Christianity than for their own glory.

Vratislav married a Lutician princess named Drahomira, or Dogmar. Several children were born to them; but those that became of importance in history were Boleslav and Václav. Václav being the elder, was regarded as the heir to the throne; but his father dying when he was but eighteen years of age, Dogmar seized the government as well as the guardianship of her son. Her ambitious designs were opposed by Ludmila, who, on account of her piety and charity, possessed great influence among the people. She had assumed the whole education of Václav, who loved her more than he did his mother, because he perceived with grief that the latter still leaned to paganism. The trouble between mother and daughter-in-law continuing to increase, the latter resigned all court honors and betook herself to her fortress Tetin, resolved to devote her days to prayer and almsgiving. But the hatred of Dogmar followed her to this retreat. One night, while still at prayers, Ludmila was surprised to see strange, evil-looking men enter her chamber. They were assassins hired by Dogmar to carry out her wicked purpose. Not wishing to shed the blood of the unhappy princess, they seized her veil, twisted it around her neck, and so strangled her.

Dogmar afterwards repented of this crime, and caused a chapel to be built near the place. The body of Ludmila was taken to Prague, and buried in the Church of St. George. On account of her cruel death and her great piety, she has always been regarded as a saint.

ST. VÁCLAV.

After the death of Ludmila, Dogmar for a time was the absolute ruler of the realm, but she soon got into trouble with the German king, Henry the Fowler, who was at enmity with most Slavic nations. It is supposed that she sent aid to her kinsmen at Luticia, with whom Henry was at war.

When the enemy invaded the country, Václav, although only twenty years of age, assumed control of the government, and prepared to defend the country. The war which followed, although neither very long nor bloody, proved most momentous in its results to Bohemia. When the German army invaded the country, and coming almost to the very gates of Prague threatened destruction to the city, Václav decided to make a treaty of peace. He agreed to place the Bohemian Church under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Ratisbon, to pay an annual tribute of five hundred pounds of silver and one hundred and twenty oxen. This was in the year 928 A. D., which marks the beginning of that fearful struggle between Germany and Bohemia that lasted for so many centuries, and has not been fought out to this day. There had been war between the two nations before, and doubtless would have been after this, but by this treaty, Václav, so to speak, put the Bohemian nation in subjection to the Germans, and thus gave them a moral right to interfere in the affairs of that nation.

Vcálav’s brother Boleslav, his mother, and many lords protested against this treaty; but he would not heed their counsel. Educated entirely by his pious grandmother, he desired above all things peace, so that nothing should hinder the spread of Christianity in his dominions. Then, too, war was repugnant to his tastes; he preferred to attend church, to help to serve mass, to engage in long prayers, to give alms, and build churches. He would have made an excellent bishop, but as a political ruler he was a total failure. Nevertheless, he was a popular prince, greatly beloved by his subjects.

Boleslav and his mother Dogmar tried to induce Václav to break the obnoxious treaty; and being unsuccessful, they formed a conspiracy against him.

Being informed of this, he cast his mother into prison; but later, becoming convinced that his suspicions were unfounded, he released her, bringing her back to Prague with great honor. It would have been better had he trusted his mother less; but he learned this when it was too late.

It was the custom of Václav to be present each year at the festivals held on the anniversaries of the dedication of the various churches. The Murder of Vàclav.On the 27th of September, 935, he went to Boleslav, the city of his brother, to be present at the Church services held on that day. After the service, his brother persuaded him to remain to enjoy with them the festivities of the night. Václav, not dreaming of evil, accepted his brother’s invitation. But even then it was not too late to escape his doom, had he been a little more politic. While at the tournament, he was warned that his life was in danger, and advised to flee. But he would not believe that his brother could he guilty of so foul a deed, and the warning was left unheeded.

The next morning, going to early mass, he met his brother at the church door, and after a loving greeting, thanked him for his hospitality and the pleasant entertainment he had given him. Drawing his sword, Boleslav said, “But I have prepared a still more pleasant entertainment for thee to-day,” and with these cruel words he struck the unfortunate prince upon the head with his sword. Václav seized his brother, threw him down, saying, “May God forgive thee, brother, for this deed!” Just then the other conspirators rushed out, fell upon Václav, and stabbed him until he lay quite dead. His friends and attendants, except a few who saved themselves by flight, suffered the same fate. When Dogmar heard of the death of Václav, she hurried to the place, fell upon his body and wept bitterly. Being warned that her life, too, was in danger, she fled from the country, seeking refuge with one of her daughters in Croatia.

The body of Václav lay a long time upon the church steps, no one daring to remove it. At length a priest ventured to take it up and lay it out in his own house, and, not being molested, he finally took it to church. The wicked deed being done, Boleslav thought it would be good policy to repent, and therefore he ordered the body to be buried with great honors. Three years later it was taken to Prague, and buried in the St. Vitus Cathedral, where it rests at the present time.

In those days, whenever a crime was committed, the guilty person repented, did penance by devoting a part of the ill-gotten wealth to build a church or endow a monastery, and then lived on to enjoy the rest with a clear conscience. Boleslav, in addition to other penance, devoted his first-born son to a monastic life.

As might be expected, Václav’s pious life and cruel death won him the reputation of being a saint. The old chroniclers say: “Václav built churches, richly endowing them, so that the service of God went on with us continually as among other nations. And God granted him such grace that he could read Latin books like a priest, and likewise Slavonic ones without error. Not only did he know books, but he kept the faith, helping the wretched, feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, protecting widows and orphans, ransoming prisoners, and loving and caring alike for rich and poor.”

St. Václav is regarded as the first patron of Bohemia. His image is found on old coins, seals, and banners, and whatever is distinctly Bohemian is generally called St. Václavian.

BOLESLAV I.

The reign of Boleslav is noted for great centralization of power. From the time of Libuse till to the death of Václav, the form of government remained the same. The Bohemian rulers, generally called princes, were the elders of the people, their power being limited, and their actions governed by the decisions of their lords or lechs, as expressed in their assemblies. The lechs, on the other hand, possessed absolute power upon their own estates, being entirely independent of their prince. This state of things being very detrimental to the central Government. Boleslav early sought means whereby the power of the lords might be weakened and his own strengthened. As some of these lords were even wealthier than their prince, they thought themselves his equals, if not superiors; and Boleslav looked about how he might enrich himself, and so be able to cope with them in this respect. At this time Bohemia was divided into fifty districts, called zupy, and in each district there was a large tract of land that did not belong to the lords of the zupy, but was regarded as public property. Boleslav seized this public land, with all the improvements upon it, and at once became more wealthy than all his subjects together. In this way he obtained abundant means whereby he might reward the services of men devoted to him. Besides this Boleslav resorted to various other methods, often quite tyrannical, to increase his power, which won for him the surname of “the Terrible.” In old histories, up to the time of Boleslav, the lords are spoken of as duces Bœmanorum; but after his time, they were called merely mlites, or comites, which signified only public officers.

The attempt of Boleslav to strengthen his power at the expense of the power of his lords was not entirely from selfish motives. He never could forget the disgraceful treaty that his brother, Václav, had made with the Germans; and no sooner had he established and strengthened his power than he prepared to throw off the hated yoke. There was no necessity to declare war; for, since the murder of Václav, the German king, Henry, had deemed it his duty to punish Boleslav, if possible. War was continued, with some interruptions, for fourteen years; but at last Boleslav was compelled to sue for peace, agreeing to pay the same tribute that Václav did.

Boleslav was more successful against his other enemies. At this time (955) the Magyars were committing fearful depredations in the surrounding countries. With an army of 100,000 men, they invaded Germany, going as far as the city of Augsburg, in Suabia. Boleslav sent a small force to the assistance of the German king, himself taking his stand, with a large army, on the borders of Bohemia. The Magyars, after sustaining a severe defeat from the German army, turned with the remaining forces against Bohemia; but they were met by the army of Boleslav. A severe battle was fought, in which the Magyar army was almost annihilated. Boleslav continued the war, and succeeded in wresting from the Magyars, not only Moravia, but also a part of Hungary, which countries he annexed to his own dominions. He also extended his territories in other directions, obtaining possession of Silesia and a large part of the country around Cracow. He made an alliance of friendship with Mecislay, the ruler of Poland, giving him his daughter, Dubravka, in marriage. Like her great-grandmother, Ludmila, she so excelled in the Christian virtues, and was so zealous in her efforts to spread the gospel, that she soon converted her husband, and thus was the means of introducing Christianity into Poland.

Although Boleslav had gained the possession of the throne through violence, he proved a good and able ruler. He died in 967, and was succeeded by his son, called Boleslav II.

ST. VOJTECH, OR ADALBERT.

Boleslav II was a good and wise ruler, and did much to strengthen Christianity in his dominions. Through his efforts a bishopric was established in Prague. The first bishop was Detmar, by birth a Saxon, but, through long residence in the country, knowing well the Čech tongue.

At this time, Christianity in Bohemia was still mixed up with many heathen customs. The people said Christian prayers, sang Christian hymns, but at the same time offered sacrifices to their heathen deities. They still buried their dead in the sacred groves, and placed more confidence in wizards than in priests. But, what was worse than all this, they refused to give up the practice of polygamy and intermarriage among relatives, and still sold as slaves captives taken in war. This state of things was a source of much grief to the Christian priests, and especially to the good Bishop Detmar.

At this time, there were in Bohemia two great families, named Slavnikovs and Wirsovs. Both being powerful and wealthy, they had more influence upon political affairs than the ruler himself. But of this more will be said in another connection.

One of the Slavnikov families had a most promising boy, named Vojtech. The boy showed such love for learning that his parents determined to devote him to the Church, and for this purpose sent him to the famous school of Magdeburg. His winning disposition and aptitude for learning gained him the love and admiration of all; and when he was ordained, the Archbishop of Germany, Adalbert, gave him his own name.^[1]

After his ordination, Vojtech went to Prague, to be the assistant to Bishop Detmar. The bishop, in spite of his zealous labors, had not been successful in eradicating the heathenish customs from his country; and this was a perpetual source of grief to him. He feared lest the souls of those lost under his teaching might be required at his hands. In the enthusiastic young priest he found a ready sympathizer in all his trials; and these, in turn, made a deep impression upon Vojtech’s susceptible soul. When Detmar died, Vojtech was appointed his successor, and at once began to labor to establish true Christianity in the country, with even more zeal than his predecessor. In his simplicity of life, his charity, his self-denial, he was indeed a true follower of the Teacher whose doctrines he tried so hard to inculcate. But although the people loved him, and, wherever he went, showed him the greatest honor, they would not give up their pagan customs. Among the higher classes, polygamy was still practiced, and captives taken in war were sold to the Jews as slaves. At last Vojtech became discouraged, and determined to make a journey to Rome to ask the Pope to relieve him of the bishopric. After much deliberation, the request was granted; but when the news of this reached Bohemia, neither Boleslav nor the people would hear of it, but immediately sent messengers to the Pope, begging him to send them back their bishop. Vojtech was accordingly sent back to Bohemia, where he was received with great public rejoicings.

Vojtech, believing that now the people would heed his counsels, took up the work of ministry with more zeal than ever; but his hopes were doomed to a bitter disappointment.

The two great families—the Wirsovs and the Slavnikovs, the family of Vojtech—were constantly at war with each other; and it was an event connected with this family feud that now brought affairs to a crisis, and led Vojtech to resign his office a second time. The wife of one of the Wirsovs, proving unfaithful to her husband, according to the heathen custom was to be put to death, the wronged husband himself performing the deed. The woman fled, seeking refuge in the church of Vojtech. The enraged Wirsovs surrounded the house, threatening to murder the bishop if he did not give up the fugitive; and the threat, doubtless, would have been carried into effect, had not one of the men bethought himself. He said to Vojtech that he would not help him to a martyr’s crown, but that, instead, he would take signal vengeance upon his brothers. At last the hiding-place of the unfortunate woman was discovered; she was dragged out, and beheaded by the public executioner.

With heart-breaking, with grief, and cursing the Wirsovs, Vojtech again left Bohemia, refusing to live in a land where such deeds of cruelty could go unpunished. In justice to Boleslav II, it may be remarked that, at the time this happened, he was suffering from a severe illness, and his son, who favored the Wirsovs, ruled in his stead.

The Wirsovs now made good their threat against the family of Vojtech. They had previously made war upon them, depriving them of all their estates, until they were left with but a single fortress. Here they were attacked by their unrelenting foes, defeated, and all murdered—men, women, and children.

When Vojtech left Bohemia, he went to Rome, determining to end his days in a monastery. But the pope, Gregory V, thought it not well that so able a man should waste his time within cloister walls; and so he again sent him to Bohemia, but on condition that, if the people refused him obedience, he would be freed from the order, and could go as a missionary to the Prussians. When he returned to Bohemia, the Wirsovs, being in power, sent word to him that he need not return; that they loved not the fault-finder. Vojtech then turned to go as a missionary to the nations along the Baltic, where, at last, he won the martyr’s crown. Radim, Vojtech’s brother, who had shared all his trials, accompanying him upon his journeys, succeeded in making his escape. He fled to Poland, and related to the Polish king the tragic events of his brother’s death. Boleslav immediately sent messengers, who, upon paying a heavy ransom, obtained the body of Vojtech, bringing it to Hnesdau, where it was buried with great honor.

BOLESLAV III.

The chief events, in the reign of Boleslav II, were those concerning St. Vojtech, and the strifes between the two families, the Wirsovs and Slavnikovs. Boleslav II died in 999, leaving the throne to his oldest son, also called Boleslav. Besides him, there were two brothers, Jaromir and Ulric.

Of Boleslav III it may be said, as of some of the Jewish kings—“And he did evil in the sight of the Lord more than they all that were before him.” Being very cruel, he was also cowardly; and fearing that his brothers might win more public favor than he was able to secure, he subjected one to a horrible mutilation, and tried to smother the other in a bath. They escaped with their lives, seeking refuge at the court of the German king, Henry II.

At this time the ruler of Poland was also Boleslav, who, on account of his valor, was surnamed the Brave. This ruler, seeing that the Bohemian prince was not in favor with his subjects, invaded his territory, and was so successful that he was able to enlarge his own dominions by the annexation of Moravia, Silesia, and Slavonia.

The loss of so much territory had the effect of embittering Boleslav and making him even more cruel than before, until the people could bear it no longer.

In the account given of St. Vojtech, it will be remembered that the Wirsovs were the special favorites of Boleslav. Indeed, one of, them was his son-in-law. But these favorites were the very ones to plot an insurrection against him. Vladivoi, the brother of the ruler of Poland, was invited into the country, and the government put into his hands. Boleslav, forsaken by all, sought refuge at the court of France; but having previously done an injury to the French king, the latter, instead of granting the desired hospitality, seized the fugitive prince and cast him into prison.

In the meantime Vladivoi, not feeling secure upon the throne of Bohemia as long as the two brothers of Boleslav were at the German court, determined to seek there the confirmation of his rights. Henry II granted his request, but on condition that he receive Bohemia as a fief from the German king. Thus the country was sold to the Germans, without the consent or knowledge of its people.

The Bohemians soon had ample cause to repent for inviting a foreigner to rule over them; and when, after a short reign, Vladivoi died, they offered the crown to Jaromir, who was still at the court of the German king. After Boleslav III had been released from his imprisonment in France, he went to Poland and cast himself upon the magnanimity of his chief enemy, Boseslav the Brave. When Jaromir was called to the government of Bohemia, Boleslav III was still in Poland; and the ruler of that country, thinking it would be to his advantage to have a voice in deciding who should sit upon the throne of Bohemia, invaded the country, and compelled the people to receive again their old king. The two princes, Jaromir and Ulric, again fled to Germany. Before leaving the country, the Polish prince effected a reconciliation between Boleslav and his lords.

The reconciliation on the part of Boleslav III was not sincere; for no sooner was his patron gone than he prepared to take signal vengeance upon those who had driven him into exile. In Shrove-tide, 1003, when all the people were engaged in merry-making, Boleslav, too, made a feast, inviting some of the most distinguished people of the realm, among which the Wirsovs were the most prominent. In the midst of the festivities a band of soldiers, headed by Boleslav, entered the hall, and at once began the work of vengeance. All the Wirsovs present were murdered without mercy.

The people stood aghast at this treacherous deed; but as soon as they recovered from their consternation, they sought redress at the court of the Polish king, who had been the means of reseating Boleslav upon the throne. Boleslav the Brave gathered an army, and immediately marched into Bohemia. The tyrant Boleslav, under a pretense of friendship, was decoyed into the Polish camp, where he received, to some extent, the punishment for his crimes. His eyes were burned out, and he was cast into prison in a strong fortress, where, after many years, he ended his miserable existence. Boleslav the Brave then went to Prague, where he compelled the people to accept him as their rightful ruler.

The Polish yoke, however, soon grew too heavy to bear, and the people turned their eyes to Germany, where dwelt the rightful heirs, Ulric and Jaromir. A secret treaty was made; and while the Polish ruler was away from Prague, carrying on a war with the German king, the two brothers came with an army to the capital, whose gates were opened to them. The garrison left by Boleslav was easily defeated, and Jaromir was established in Prague as the rightful ruler.

Bohemia, although delivered from bondage to the Poles, remained in a most deplorable condition. Jaromir, grateful to the German king both for the long hospitality he had enjoyed at his court, and for the help he had received in gaining the throne, entered into a close alliance with him, which proved a source of much trouble to the Bohemians. The Germans kept encroaching upon their territory, building fortresses upon the very boundaries of Bohemia. The wealth of the country was also continually drained to furnish means to Jaromir to help his ally, Henry II. This creating general dissatisfaction, a conspiracy was formed, Jaromir was driven from the throne, and the government was seized by Ulric (1022). Jaromir, as before, sought refuge at the court of Henry II; but the German king sent him back to Ulric, who completed his act of usurpation and cruelty by putting out the eyes of his unfortunate brother.

Ulric is quite a celebrated figure in literature, on account of the episode with the peasant maiden Bozena, Ulric and Bozenawhich is a parallel to the story of “King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid” of English history. One day, while Ulric was out hunting, he espied a beautiful maiden washing clothes at a spring of water near the village. He was so charmed with the beauty of her face and the grace of her movements that he ordered her to be taken to his castle, where he made her his wife. Having no heir by his first wife, he felt justified in taking a second one. This was about 1010, at which time polygamy was not entirely eradicated from the country. The beautiful poems that celebrate this event, however, never mention the first wife of Ulric.

ST. PROKOP.

During the reign of Ulric, the most illustrious person in the country was the hermit Prokop.

It will be remembered that when Christianity was introduced into Moravia, the German priests did all in their power to substitute the Latin for the Slavic ritual. At first they were not successful; but when Moravia lost her independence, both that country and Bohemia finally succumbed to German influence, and Latin became the language of church service. This was a great loss to the people; for in those days, when learning was shared by only a few, the hearing of the church service in their mother-tongue was a means of considerable edification. Thus it was that when the news spread that a new convent was to be built, where only the Čech tongue was to be used, the whole country was filled with rejoicing, and all the people blessed the ruler who was to grant them this privilege. But although the order for the building of the convent came from Ulric, the person to whom the thanks were due was the hermit Prokop, or Procopius.

During the reign of Boleslav III. Prokop was a priest at Vyšehrad; but being grieved at the cruelties of his ruler, he left the country, going to Slavonia. While there, he became intimate with a pious monk, who in the church service still used the Slavic ritual, and convinced Prokop that an intelligent worship was more acceptable to God than a mere blind ceremonial. Prokop remained with this monk several years, and the lessons he learned sank deep into his heart. He finally returned to Bohemia, and, seeking a secluded spot in the picturesque region of the river Sazava, he decided to spend his days there as a hermit.

About the year 1031, while Ulric was returning from a hunt, in the depth of the forest he discovered a strange-looking man working in a garden. Entering into conversation with the strange man, he was so affected by his words that he fell upon his knees, begging Prokop to hear his confession. This Prokop willingly did; but when he heard the penitent relate the crimes that he had been guilty of, he prayed long and earnestly that God might forgive him, and, with burning words, exhorted him to a new life. Returning home, and meditating upon what he had seen and heard, it occurred to Ulric that it would be a good plan to build a monastery and a church upon the spot where he had met the holy man; and he at once decided that, in the new church, prayers should be made to God in the same language in which the hermit had persuaded him to turn from his evil ways and begin a new life.

Ulric carried his good resolution into effect. The church and monastery were built, and, as might be expected, Prokop was appointed the first abbot.

This convent proved to he not only the means of Christian instruction to the people, but in due time it became the center of learning to a large territory. A band of zealous monks gathered around St. Prokop, who instructed youths apt in learning in book knowledge, and in the arts of painting, carving, and architecture. Many Slavonic books were here written, some of which are preserved to this day.

A part of this convent is still standing, forming a beautiful chapel, to which pilgrimages are made every year, upon the same day that the Americans celebrate the anniversary of their independence. The life of St. Prokop is surrounded with numerous legends, which unhappily obscure the real significance of his labors to Bohemia.

BRETISLAV.

Bretislav, the son of Ulric and Bozena, was destined to re-establish the strength and glory of his country. Inheriting his mother’s beauty of person and character, and his father’s dauntless and enterprising spirit, he early won the admiration of the people, who called him their Achilles.

Even during the life of his father, Bretislav distinguished himself in war against the Hungarians. During the reign of Ulric, similar feuds arose in Poland to those which had existed in Bohemia during the reign of Boleslav III. The brothers of the Polish king, thinking themselves wronged, appealed for help to Stephen, the ruler of Hungary. Taking up their cause, he succeeded in wresting Slavonia and Moravia from the Polish king; but once having it in his power, he decided to keep it for himself. Seeing this injustice, Ulric seized the opportunity to win back those countries to Bohemia, feeling justified in so doing because the Poles themselves had wrested them from his father’s dominions. Bretislav was therefore sent on this expedition. He was so successful in the undertaking that Stephen was glad to sue for peace, and Moravia was again joined to Bohemia.

While upon this expedition, Bretislav came to those places that had been the scenes of the missionary labors of Cyril and Methodus; and seeing the city of Welehrad in ruins, he wept, and resolved that the spoils of the war should be devoted to rebuilding the old churches and renewing the ancient strongholds.

To make his possessions in Moravia more secure, Bretislav undertook a journey to Conrad II, then the German emperor, to seek a confirmation of his rights.Bretislav and Judith. While passing through the city of Sweinfurt, he saw Judith, the sister of the Margrave Otto, and was so struck with her great beauty that he determined to win her for his wife, even if he should die in the attempt. Fearing that if he asked for her hand, her proud brother might subject him to much humiliation, he decided to take a shorter and bolder way of winning his bride. As was the custom for noble ladies of those days, Judith was living in a cloister, where she was educated by the monks. Taking a few trusty warriors, Bretislav waited at the church-door where Judith was wont to go to her devotions. As soon as she made her appearance, the bold warrior seized her, placed her before him upon his horse, and galloped away amidst the wild confusion of the monks, whose frantic efforts proved unavailing to prevent the abduction of their precious charge. Bretislav took the beautiful Judith to Olmutz, where the young couple were married, she having first been made the Duchess of Moravia.

THE REIGN OF BRETISLAV.

In 1037, Ulric died, and Bretislav became the ruler of Bohemia. Having been so successful in the war with Hungary, Bretislav determined to restore his country to its former greatness. As Poland was in a state of anarchy, he determined to invade the country, and, if possible, annex it to his own dominions. He succeeded in taking the city of Cracow, where he found untold treasures, collected there by Boleslav the Brave. He also came to the city of Hnezdau, where rested the remains of St. Vojtech. Bretislav, together with his officers, was seized with a desire to carry those precious relics to Prague; and it would have been done at once had it not been prevented by the Bishop of Prague, who also was in the army. He showed them that this act would be sacrilegious, unless it were done with the greatest solemnity; and insisted that before they touch the relics, they spend three days in fasting and prayer, and solemnly promise to keep all the commands^[2] of the martyr. This promise they willingly made, although it is doubtful whether they kept it. However, the body of Vojtech was taken up and brought to Prague, to the great delight of the people, who rejoiced that the remains of so great a saint should rest among them.

While Bretislav was plundering the cities of Poland, Rejcka, who ruled the country in her son’s name, appealed for protection to Henry II, who was one of the most powerful rulers of his age. He gladly embraced the opportunity to meddle in the affairs of Bohemia; and at once declared war against Bretislav. This war lasted for several years, and in the end proved disastrous to the Bohemians. Bretislav was obliged to limit his boundaries to Moravia and Bohemia, and to continue to pay the old tribute of five hundred pounds of silver and sixty yoke of oxen. But after this the Bohemian prince became one of the electors of the Emperor of Germany.

Complaint being brought to the Pope that Bretislav had plundered the churches of Poland, as a penance he built a beautiful church in Old Boleslav, or, as the name has been mutilated by the Germans, Alte Bungslau.

Bretislav was a wise and able ruler. During his reign, many good laws were passed, among which the most important was the one in regard to the succession. Having five sons, he feared lest, after his death, the struggle for the throne might plunge the country into civil war, as had been the case in Poland; with the consent of the State Diet, a law was passed declaring that the oldest of the Premysls should inherit the throne, whether he came in the direct line of descent or not.

SPYTIHNÉV II.

Bretislav died in 1055, and was succeeded by his oldest son, Spytihnév, who is known in history as the second of that name, the first Spytihnév having ruled but a small part of Bohemia, during the time when the Moravian prince Swatopluk was lord over both Moravia and Bohemia.

Like his father, Spytihnév possessed great beauty of person. He was tall, had a ruddy complexion, black hair, and a long flowing beard. He was generous and noble, but very severe and just. This justness, however, was mostly towards his own people; for as soon as he assumed the government he passed an edict ordering all Germans to leave the country, includhis own mother, Judith, who sought refuge with her son Vratislav, in Moravia. This severe measure seemed to have been specially directed against some lords who had been his father’s courtiers, and had done the young prince some personal injury. Some time after this, this same ruler drove away the Slavonic monks from the Sazava monastery, placing the institution in the hands of Germans. The fugitive monks, with their abbot, Vitos, who was the nephew of St. Prokop, the founder of the institution, betook themselves to Hungary, where they remained till they were recalled during the reign of King Vratislav I. The historian Kosmos, being personally acquainted with Spytihnév, says many things in his praise. He was the protector of widows and orphans, who never appealed to him in vain.

VRATISLAV I.

Spytihnév died in 1061, when he was but thirty years of age; and his brother Vratislav, being the oldest of the Premysl family, was declared the ruler, according to the law of succession passed during the reign of Bretislav. There were three more brothers, Otto, Conrad, and Jaromir. Otto and Conrad received possessions in Moravia, but Jaromir had been destined for the Church, with the agreement that when the Bishop of Prague died he should be appointed his successor. Jaromir was a spirited young man, who preferred hunting to prayer, and not receiving any lands, he went to Poland, where he spent his time in the gayeties of life at court.

The Bishop of Prague dying, the lords sent word to Jaromir to return to his country, that the bishop’s chair was awaiting him. Jaromir accordingly returned, was accepted as the bishop by the lords, but was waiting to receive the confirmation of his office from Vratislav.

A Diet was held at Nachod, the lords with their bishop waiting for the ruler to perform the act of confirmation; but what was their amazement when they saw Vratislav call to the throne Lanzon, a German, and extend to him the scepter and ring as the sign that he accepted him as bishop. Kojata, one of the chief lords, turning to Otto, exclaimed: “Why standest thou here like a block, and dost not take thy brother’s part? Seest thou not that one of princely blood is pushed aside, and a stranger, who came into the country ragged, is placed into the bishop’s chair? But if our prince breaks his father’s oath, we at least shall not make our fathers perjurers in the sight of God. We are ready for any undertaking rather than consent to the choice of this German.” Smil, the lord of Zatec, spoke in a similar manner, and then, taking Jaromir and the other two princes by the hand, they led them out of the assembly, followed by many other lords. Vratislav, seeing that the friends of Jaromir were preparing for armed resistance, went to Prague, whence he sent messengers to his brother, promising to confirm him in the bishopric.

Jaromir proved a good bishop, being very conscientious in the discharge of the duties of his office. He was very kind to the poor, giving abundant alms; but poor clerical students were the special objects of his care, and he spared no pains to help them to be: come thoroughly prepared for their high calling. Although Jaromir was a very faithful bishop, he did not succeed in laying aside his spirited disposition. A dispute arising between him and the Bishop of Moravia in regard to some estate that both claimed, Jaromir went to Olmutz, entered the house of that prelate with an armed force, and himself beat the unfortunate man. For this act of violence he was cited to Rome, and humbling himself duly before the Pope, he finally succeeded in obtaining absolution, but not the estate in question. Upon returning home, he took possession of the estate; but the Pope finally settled the difficulty by dividing it equally between the two bishops.

During the reign of Vratislav occurred that memorable quarrel between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV of Germany about the question of investitures. Vratislav took the part of the emperor, sending him three hundred picked men to aid him in the expedition against the Pope. This small force did good service, and were the very first to scale the walls of Rome, for which gallant deed, the leader, Wiprecht, was rewarded by receiving Judith, the daughter of the Bohemian prince, in marriage. Vratislav also did good service to the emperor by defeating Leopold, the Duke of Austria, who had rebelled against Henry while the latter was away on the expedition to Rome.

In consideration of these services, Henry gave Meissen to Vratislav, and further honored him by giving him the title of King of Bohemia. Up to this time the rulers of Bohemia had been called princes or dukes, as was also the case in regard to Moravia. Henry further rewarded Vratislav by making his brother Jaromir (Gebhart) chancellor of the realm, and provided that at the death of the Bishop of Moravia, the two bishoprics should be reunited. Finally he accepted four thousand pounds of silver as full payment for all the tribute that Bohemia should ever pay to the empire; but after that the king was to furnish three hundred men to accompany the emperor whenever he went to Rome for his coronation.

Vratislav had been called King of Bohemia by the German Emperor; but this title did not seem real as long as he had not been crowned. The Coronation of Vratislav.Therefore, as soon as he returned from the wars, grand preparations were made in Prague for this ceremony. June 15, 1086, Prague was the scene of the grandest celebration Bohemia had ever seen. Both Vratislav and his wife Svatava were crowned in the St. Vitus Cathedral. The people shouted: “Blessing, victory, and glory to Vratislav, the great and gracious King of Bohemia and Poland, crowned of God!” The title King of Poland was but nominal, being given by the emperor to show Bohemia’s supremacy over that country.

Vratislav reigned six years after his coronation. He had five sons, and for some time he thought of breaking the Bretislav law of succession in favor of his oldest son Bretislav; but the young man bringing upon himself the wrath of his father by murdering the favorite courtier of the latter, the crown was finally given to Conrad, the brother of Vratislav.

Vratisiav, being a firm ally of Henry IV, many German noblemen and other dignitaries came to Bohemia, and, consequently, numerous German customs were introduced into the country. During his reign, the first German settlement was made in Prague, the privilege having been purchased from the king.

In 1092, Vratislav lost his life by falling from his horse while out hunting. His body was buried in the beautiful church of St. Peter and Paul that he himself had built and endowed.

At the very beginning of his reign, Vratislav righted the wrong that had been done by his brother to the Slavonic monks of St. Prokop’s monastery at Sazava,Bozetech. by calling them back and reinstating them in their old position. They had a very famous abbot named Bozetech. He was a very learned man, and comprehending the spirit of the founder of the monastery, he made it the seat of learning as well as of art. He was himself well skilled in sculpture, wood-carving, and architecture. He made many beautiful ornaments for the church, and also drew out the plans for several churches. On account of his devotion to the Church and his benevolent disposition, he was greatly beloved, not only by the people, but also by the king, who was a frequent visitor to Sazava. A curious incident is related of Bozetech that shows the jealous disposition of the higher clergy even at this early date. While the abbot was serving mass and the king kneeling before the altar, he took the crown and laid it on the king’s head. As this honorable duty belonged only to the bishop, that dignitary was so offended that he resolved to impose a severe penance upon the presumptuous abbot. He accordingly ordered Bozetech to make a wooden cross as large as himself, and carry it upon his shoulders to Rome. Bozetech obeyed, and so won back the favor of his superior.

BRETISLAV II.

After the death of Vratislav, his brother Conrad ascended the throne; but, dying within eight months, he was succeeded by Bretislav, the oldest son of Vratislav.

The reign of Bretislav II is noted for the efforts he made to root out the last remnants of paganism. The sacred groves were cut down, the dead buried in consecrated ground, and wizards and fortune-tellers driven from the country.

It was during the reign of this king that the Crusades began. Many of the Crusaders, coming from the Rhine provinces, marched through Bohemia, causing much trouble by their lawless behavior. As usual, the chief objects of their persecution were the Jews. While in Prague, they tried to compel them to be baptized; and when they refused, they were beaten and robbed, the authorities either not caring, or being unable to prevent such lawlessness.

King Bretislav brought much evil upon the country by attempting to violate the law of succession. According to law, his successor should have been Ulric, the son of Conrad, who, it will be remembered, reigned but eight months; but Bretislav determined that his own brother should be his successor. The two brothers, Bretislav and Borivoi, therefore, undertook a journey to the German emperor, to obtain his assistance in securing the throne. Henry IV gladly granted this request, since, by so doing, he exercised a right that in the future could be taken as a precedent, and thus give him a plausible right to interfere in Bohemian politics. As Ulric ruled in Moravia, as soon as Bretislav returned he invaded that country, drove Ulric away, and established Borivoi in the government.

Shortly after this, Bretislav perished by a violent death. Returning home from a hunt, when he was passing through a dense wood a strange horseman rushed out and thrust Bretislav through with his spear. The people regarded this as a punishment from heaven for his unjust treatment of his kinsmen, The assassin was found, but mortally wounded with his own dagger.

BORIVOI.

As soon as Borivoi heard of the death of the king, he hastened to Bohemia to take possession of the throne. As soon as he left, the fugitive Ulric returned, and regained the government of Moravia, and prepared to invade Bohemia. Following the example of his rival, he, too, went with rich gifts to the emperor, and the latter, in turn, granted him the fief of Bohemia. But as he received no material support, his expedition against Bohemia did not prove successful, and he returned home, giving up all aspirations to the throne.

Borivoi proved a good ruler, being greatly beloved by the people; but he was a weak man, easily influenced by others, and unable to protect himself against their intrigues.

Swatopluk, the Duke of Olmutz, belonged to a younger branch of the Premysl family. Being a bold and ambitious young man, he determined to secure for himself the crown of Bohemia. Not having the shadow of any legal right to the crown, he was obliged to resort to intrigue. He bribed the burgmasters of some of the most important fortresses, invaded the country, marching to the very gates of Prague. He expected that the fortresses of Hradschin and Vyšehrad would be delivered into his hands; but, being disappointed in this, he was obliged to leave the country, feeling much chagrined at the miscarriage of his plan.

But Swatopluk’s ambitious spirit was not to be daunted by one failure. He soon formed another plan, far deeper and more treacherous than the first. In one of his courtiers he found a willing tool to carry out his scheme. This wretch came to Borivoi as though he were fleeing from the wrath of his master, and begged the king to take him under his protection. Remaining at the Bohemian court, he soon won the confidence of Borivoi, and succeeded in turning him against his best friends, including his own brother, Vladislav, and the powerful Wirsov nobles. Vladislav, being estranged from his brother, entered into an agreement with the usurper, promising to retain neutral in the coming contest, in consideration of which, the latter, if successful, would declare him his immediate successor. Swatopluk then invaded the country the second time, and the king, forsaken by his friends, was obliged to flee from the country. As usual, he sought refuge at the court of the German emperor, and, promising great rewards, he succeeded in persuading that ruler to take up his cause. Swatopluk was therefore ordered to appear before his liege lord, as the emperor now claimed to be, and give an account of his deeds. Fearing to disobey so great a monarch, he went to Germany; but no sooner had he made his appearance at the court than he was seized and cast into prison. But Swatopluk had powerful friends at home, who would not leave him to languish in prison. The emperor wanted 10,000 pounds of silver for his ransom, and as the court treasury was empty, churches, merchants, and private families were robbed to raise the required amount. The sum was paid, Swatopluk returned to Bohemia, and resumed the government without any further opposition.

THE MASSACRE OF THE WIRSOVS.

The Wirsov family, although not spoken of often in so small a work as this, nevertheless played an important part in the earlier history of Bohemia. Being very wealthy and powerful, they often indulged in ambitious schemes, and consequently were regarded with suspicion at the court. When Swatopluk usurped the throne, there was war between the German emperor and the Hungarians and Poles, and the Bohemian king, in consideration of the services done him by the emperor, was obliged to render him his assistance. In this war, the two most powerful Wirsov lords, Bozej and Mutina, were placed in command of the army on the Polish frontier, and, being attacked by Boleslav, the Polish prince, they were obliged to fall back into Bohemia. At this time Swatopluk was in Hungary, and, hearing the news, he started home, fearing lest a worse disaster befall his armies. On the way home he was met by secret messengers, who informed him that the recent defeat of his forces was due to the treachery of the Wirsovs, who had entered into a secret alliance with the Polish ruler. Swatopluk himself, being of a very treacherous character, easily believed in the treachery of others, and so he at once determined to take signal vengeance upon the Wirsovs. On this homeward journey, Mutina, with his two sons, came to meet his king, and was received most cordially. The whole patty remained all night at the fortress of Breslau. The next morning the king ordered his lords to meet him in the banquet hall, and when they were all together, he entered, and began to denounce the whole race of Wirsovs, charging them with all manner of crimes. He then turned to his hired murderers, and ordered them to begin the work of death. Such a consternation fell upon those present that for a moment a deathlike silence reigned in the hall; but it was only for a moment, for the assassins were thirsty for the blood of their victims. The Wirsovs present, together with all their friends and attendants, were murdered without mercy. Then the bloody men mounted their horses, and galloped off to Libitz, the chief seat of the Wirsovs, to continue the work of death. When the warden announced that a body of horsemen were coming to the fortress, Bozej said: “It ’s our soldiers from Hungary; in God’s name let them enter.” The assassins repaid the kind welcome by murdering the inmates and plundering the fortress. But the Wirsov family was very large, the members living upon their estates in various parts of the country; and as Swatopluk had made the determination to exterminate the whole race of Wirsovs, the work of butchery lasted for many days. They were hunted down like wild beasts; some were found and publicly executed in Prague, and some chased and killed in the streets of the city. The historian Kosmos relates how the headsman tore two beautiful boys out of their mother’s arms, and cut their throats in the market-place. The people, seeing this horrible sight, crossed themselves and fled, fearing the vengeance of God. It was estimated that some 3,000 souls perished in this massacre.

The perpetrator of this monstrous crime did not long outlive his victims. While on an expedition to Hungary, in passing through a forest, he lost his eye by striking his head against the limb of a tree. The following year, while helping the emperor in the war against the Poles, he remained in the tent of that prince till dark, and, while returning to his own camp, a strange rider joined his guards without being observed. Just as they emerged from the woods, the rider approached Swatopluk, and, ere the latter was aware, he was thrust through with the spear, and fell dead from his horse. The strange rider was never found; but it was supposed that he had been hired to commit the deed by John, the son of Tistova, the only one of the Wirsovs that had succeeded in escaping from the country.

It will be remembered that the Wirsovs had exterminated the Slavnikov family, and that it was their cruelty that had driven St. Vojtech from the country.

VLADISLAV I.

The sudden death of Swatopluk threw the country into a state of anarchy. The evil precedent established by Bretislav in violating the law of succession now proved the cause of endless misery to the country. The struggle for the crown commenced immediately, even in the camp, and almost in the presence of the enemy. There were several candidates, and each tried to win the favor of Henry V, then in the camp, by rich presents and extravagant promises. Henry accepted all the gifts, giving in return many fair promises, but finally decided to aid Vladislav, the brother of Borivoi, who, it seems, was able to offer the highest bribe; namely, 500 pounds of silver. The disappointed candidates determined to defend their rights with the sword, and civil war was the result. Brothers fought against brothers, sons against fathers, old friends plundered each other’s estates, and the whole land was plunged into the utmost misery. Finally, the other candidates dropping off, Borivoi, the brother of Vladislav, alone remaining, the latter became reconciled, and willingly abdicated the throne in favor of Borivoi. This friendship, however, was of short duration. Vladislav again seized the throne, and Borivoi fled into foreign lands, where he remained till he died.

Vladislav was a kind-hearted man, and, as far as lay in his power, he tried to make good the losses sustained by the people during the civil war. His younger brother, Sobeslav, who had again and again plotted against him, was called to court, forgiven, and Vradislav even went so far as to persuade his lords to name Sobeslav as his successor,

SOBESLAV I.

The family of Premysls, unlike most royal families, seemed to increase in a geometrical ratio, and, the law of succession being ignored, there was a continual struggle between the older members as to who should become the ruler. Each candidate sought to win the favor of the ruling prince, since his approval had considerable influence upon the election. Thus Sobeslav, being acknowledged by Vladislav as his successor, mounted the throne without any opposition. But one candidate refused to give up his claims. This was Otto the Black, the brother of Swatopluk. Otto the Black had expected to obtain the crown at the death of Swatopluk, and, being disappointed, he determined that now, at least, the prize should not elude his grasp. He therefore appealed to Lothair, who was now Emperor of Germany.

Like his predecessors, the reigning emperor was glad of the opportunity to meddle in the affairs of Bohemia, and so at once summoned Sobeslav to appear before him and explain how he dared accept the crown of Bohemia without the consent of the emperor. Sobeslav replied to the messengers as follows: “I hope, through God’s mercy, and through the help of St. Vojtech and St. Václav, that our country shall not be delivered into the hands of strangers.” In order that this confidence might not appear to be misplaced, he immediately began to make vigorous preparations for war. Being a popular prince, soldiers flocked to his standard from all sides, and soon he was ready to meet the enemy. In the winter of 1126, Lothair invaded the country on the borders of Saxony. A bloody battle was fought in which the Germans were totally defeated, and Otto the Black, the candidate for the crown of Bohemia, fell mortally wounded. A treaty of peace was made by which Lothair agreed never to ask more of the Bohemians than the privilege of confirming the elections that they made. The two rulers then became fast friends.

The war being over, Sobeslav turned his attention to internal improvements. He built and endowed churches and monasteries, and in all possible ways encouraged art and learning. In those days, Church and education were closely connected, the churches having elementary schools connected with them, and the monasteries being the seats of higher education, where painting, music, and sculpture were cultivated, and books written and transcribed. In the twelfth century there were many collegiate churches in Bohemia, where promising young men could obtain a good education. But those that desired to stand side by side with the great scholars of other nations, usually went to Paris or to some of the universities of Italy.

Sobeslav, seeing that the law of succession was continually violated, determined to go back to the old law of primogeniture, his personal interests doubtless having something to do in this decision, since then the choice would fall upon his own son Vladislav. The Diet approved of the plan, and Vladislav was accordingly elected. As he was a young man of strong character, who would be likely to rule the country without much regard to the wishes of the nobles, they protested against the election, and chose another Vladislav, the son of the previous Vladislav, as the successor of Sobeslav, believing that, both on account of his mild disposition and his gratitude to them, he would have so much regard to their wishes that they would really be the rulers of the kingdom. Sobeslav died in 1140, and Vladislav, having the lords upon his side, ascended the throne without any opposition.

VLADISLAV I.

As soon as Vladislav assumed the government, the lords discovered that they had entirely misunderstood his character. He proved to be a man of sound judgment and of great independence of character, and began to rule the country without any regard to the wishes of those by whom he had been chosen. The indignant nobles met, declared Vladislav incapable of government, deposed him, and elected in his place, Conrad of Znojem. Civil war again followed this election. Vladislav refused to give up the throne, and prepared to defend his rights by force of arms. Conrad gathered a large army in Moravia, and invaded Bohemia. A severe battle was fought at Males, in which Vladislav was defeated, so that he was obliged to fall back to Prague. Leaving his brother Depold in command of the city, he went to Germany to seek the assistance of the emperor, with whose aid he was finally reinstated in the government.

During this war, there was fearful devastation of the country, and much confusion in regard to the ownership of property. As this, in many cases, touched church property, the Pope sent his legate, the Cardinal Guido, to settle the difficulties. The Bishop of Olmutz had been deprived of his income because he would not join the malcontent lords, who now were compelled to make good to him his losses. Cardinal Guido also succeeded in effecting a reconciliation between Vladislav and the rebellious lords. They did him homage, and he gave them back what possessions he had in his power.

Many new regulations were introduced into the country, and the law of Gregory VII, in regard to celibacy was now enforced, the priests being given the alternative either to leave their wives or their Churches. Many priests, holding high positions in the Church, had up to this time lived in open violation of the law, and even now it was not fully obeyed. In fact, married priests were found in Bohemia even in the reign of Charles IV, in the fourteenth century.

During the reign of Vladislav began the second great Crusade. Conrad III of Germany, and Louis VII of France, took up the cross, and the Bohemian prince joined the expedition with many of his chief lords.

The Prince of Saxony, Henry Leo, aided by some Moravian lords and by Bishop Zdik, also undertook a crusade, but not to the Holy Land. They went to the Slavic tribes of Lutetia and Pomerania to compel them to accept Christianity; but they met with such spirited resistance that they returned home without accomplishing anything.

The Crusade to the Holy Land also proved a failure. Vladislav, leaving his troops under the command of the French king, started for home, stopping on the way at Constantinople, where he made a treaty of friendship with the Greek emperor.

Having seen many lands, and learned much that could benefit his people, Vladislav might now have used his experience for the good of his country; but he was a warlike man, and preferred military glory to the welfare of his subjects.

Being home but a short time, he undertook another military expedition. He prepared an army to aid the German emperor to subdue the city of Milan, that was trying to gain its independence; for which service the emperor promised to grant him the title of king, and to all the rulers of Bohemia after him. But the Diet refused to grant him the money to pay the necessary expenses; and, moreover, declared that he could not, according to the laws of the country, take the troops across the boundary without the consent of the State Diet. But the intrepid warrior was not to be turned from his purpose so easily; he raised an army of 10,000 volunteers, fitting them out at his own expense.

The Bohemians distinguished themselves greatly in this expedition, the fame of their valor spreading to all parts of Europe; but, aside from this, it proved of no practical benefit to the country.

Vladislav undertook several more military expeditions, winning great renown. But he was not sustained in this by the most thoughtful men of his realm; they could not see that any benefit came to the country from these wars. Vladislav’s success was not due so much to his superior wisdom as to the counsels he received from his adviser, Bishop Daniel. This prelate was more of a statesman and politician than a Churchman. Indeed, his wisdom in regard to matters of state may be inferred from the fact that Vladislav sent him, as a special favor, to the German emperor, Frederick, at whose court he remained many years, being the chief adviser of that ruler.

Although Frederick was bound to Vladislav by so many acts of friendship, yet as soon as Bishop Daniel died he began to intrigue against him. He harbored at his court the two sons of Sobeslav, who had not given up their claim to the Bohemian throne. Vladislav, desiring to keep the crown in his own family, induced the Diet to elect his son Frederick king of Bohemia, which, being done, he resigned the government into his hands, himself entering a monastery, where he remained till his death, in 1174.

FREDERICK AND SOBESLAV II.

The abdication of Vladislav had not the desired effect; for Emperor Frederick, knowing well the state of affairs in Bohemia, determined that the prince of that country should be of his own appointing. The chief candidate for the throne was Sobeslav, the son of Sobeslav I. During the reign of Vladislav, this prince had invaded Moravia, intending to make that the base of his operations against Bohemia; but, through treachery, falling into the hands of the ruler of that country, he was cast into prison, where he languished till the time when Frederick ascended his father's throne. Emperor Frederick now ordered the King of Bohemia to release Sobeslav, and both to appear before him, that he might decide which one had the better claims to the crown. Sobeslav was immediately released, brought to Prague, and treated with the utmost distinction, Frederick hoping that he might thus win him to himself, and dissuade him from his ambitious designs. But Sobeslav had no notion of giving up his claims. He fled to the emperor, complained that he was not safe in Bohemia, begging that monarch to take up his just cause. King Frederick, being of a somewhat timid disposition, now obeyed the summons of the emperor; and, moreover, tamely submitted when the latter declared Sobeslav to be the rightful heir to the Bohemian throne.

In consideration of these services, Sobeslav was obliged to fit out an army to aid the emperor in the Italian war.

Sobeslav proved a good ruler, doing all in his power to promote the welfare and prosperity of his subjects. The common people loved him greatly, both on account of his father, Sobeslav I—of glorious memory—and because he was equally kind to the poor and lowly as to the wealthy, who in scorn called him “The Prince of Peasants.” But having spent fifteen years in prison, he had not learned the ways of the world, and consequently was unable to cope with the craft of enemies and the selfish schemes of friends, who continually imposed upon his generosity.

On account of the help that Sobeslav received from the emperor, he was obliged to aid him in the Italian war; but after having spent two years in Italy, losing many men, the emperor was obliged to give up: the struggle. Another war broke out concerning the archbishopric of Salzburg. There were two rival claimants for this position, the cause of Archbishop Albert being taken up by Pope Alexander and Henry II, the Duke of Austria, as against the emperor, who had appointed another prelate to the position. Sobeslav fitted out an army of 60,000 men, then invaded the dominions of the Duke of Austria, where he committed such fearful devastations, not sparing churches and monasterics, that he brought upon himself the wrath of the Pope, who excommunicated him, giving his crown to his former rival, Frederick, the son of Vladislav. Frederick invaded the country, and, although Sobeslav defended himself bravely, he was defeated, and compelled to leave the country. The Emperor Frederick, having become reconciled with the Pope, treacherously forsook his former ally, who had been of so much assistance to him in his wars, and promised to help Frederick to secure the crown. As might be supposed, Frederick had promised the emperor a large sum of money; but the regular sources of revenue having been drained by Sobeslav, he was obliged to resort to new, and often illegal, methods of taxation, which pressed very heavily both upon the common people and upon the nobility. The country being brought to the verge of financial ruin, the nobles arose against Frederick, deposed him, and elected Conrad Otto, of Znojem, his succcessor. He fled to the German emperor, who took up his cause, threatening the Bohemians with war if they refused to reinstate him in the government. To satisfy Conrad Otto, he gave him Moravia as a fief, thus detaching it from Bohemia, the rulers of which alone had, up to this time, exercised this right. Frederick was by no means satisfied with this arrangement, and as soon as he was well established upon the throne he raised an army, and sent his brother, Premysl Ottokar, to Moravia, to bring the ruler of that country to his former allegiance. A bloody battle was fought, and although Conrad Otto was not completely subdued, he complied with the demands of Premysl rather than longer shed the blood of friends and kindred.

During the reign of Frederick, trouble arose between him and the Bishop of Prague, who tried to free his estates from all taxation and duties to the State. Being opposed in this by Frederick, like his prince, he carried the controversy to the German court. The emperor decided that the Bishop of Prague was a prince of the imperial realm, and consequently was in duty bound to render allegiance to the emperors and not to the princes of Bohemia. Thus the Emperor Frederick tried to divide the kingdom of Bohemia into two realms, one spiritual and the other secular.

Prince Frederick now tried to win the favor of the emperor by joining him in a crusade to the Holy Land; but he died before the preparations were completed. He was succeeded by Conrad Otto, of Znojem, who, up to this time, had ruled in Moravia. The emperor also died shortly after, while on the crusade, and his son Henry was clected to succeed him. He is known in history as Henry VI.

At the death of Frederick, Bohemia was plunged into the most fearful anarchy. Several princes of the Premysl family tried to win the throne, and in the struggle did not scruple to resort to the most unlawful and ignoble measures. At length the nobility elected Václav, the son of Sobeslav; and Premysl, the brother of Frederick, being the rival claimant, immediately went to Henry, the German emperor, promising him 6,000 pounds of silver if he would grant him the fief of Bohemia. Henry, following the example of his father, gladly accpted the offer, and Premysl, otherwise called Ottokar, became the ruler of Bohemia, Václav being compelled to give up the throne.

Ottokar being unable to raise so large a sum of money, the Bishop Bretislav was sent to the German court as security until the debt should be paid. Henry, however, soon became tired of Premysl Ottokar, and as he had the right to place him upon the throne, so now he claimed the right to depose him. Bretislav, the wily prelate, had succeeded in winning the favor of the emperor, and so was declared the ruler of Bohemia. Bishop Bretislav, with a large army of German troops, now came to Bohemia to secure the throne, meeting the rightful ruler at Zdik. The Bohemian lords, who shortly before had sworn that they would lay down their lives for their prince, now treacherously forsook him, going over to the side of the usurper, and Premysl was obliged to flee, leaving the ambitious prelate master of the field. Bretislav also conquered Moravia, taking Vladislav, the brother of Premysl, prisoner.

As soon as he was well established upon the throne, the emperor sent him against the Margrave of Meissen, who was in rebellion against him. The prelate-prince devastated the country of Meissen so fearfully, that he himself was struck with shame and agreed to do a public penance.

Bishop Bretislav ruled in Bohemia only four years. Being taken ill, the lords at once proceeded to elect his successor. Being afraid of Premysl on account of their treachery to him, they set Vladislav at liberty, and elected him their prince. Premysl hearing of this, and thinking that, as the older brother, he had better claims to the crown, gathered his friends about him and hastened to Bohemia, for the second time to try to win the coveted prize. But Vladislav, with a magnanimity rarely seen among princes, and especially the princes of those days, decided that he would save his country from the horrors of another civil war. Having a far larger army at his command than Premysl, Vladislav, nevertheless, resigned the government into his brother’s hands, exacting from him a solemn promise that he would do all in his power to promote the peace and prosperity of his subjects.

PREMYSL OTTOKAR I.

Premysl, surnamed by the Germans Ottokar, was endowed by nature with the qualities that make a good ruler. He was not only a good general, but also a statesman, and it was both these qualities that enabled him to restore his country to her former independence.

When Premysl Ottokar became the ruler of Bohemia, the States constituting the German Empire were torn by internal dissensions, and as formerly the emperors had profited by the domestic troubles in Bohemia, so now Premysl Ottokar determined to profit by similar troubles in Germany.

After the death of Henry VI, the German lords and princes were divided into two hostile parties. One party wanted to choose as emperor Philip of Hohenstaufen, the brother of Henry VI, since his son Frederick was still too young to rule; the other party wanted Otto, the Duke of Brunswick. Premysl, being one of the electors, favored Philip, and that prince succeeded in securing the election. As a reward for this service, Philip declared Premysl the King of Bohemia, and also made that title forever hereditary in the rulers of that country. Both Premysl Ottokar and Philip were crowned the same day at Mayence.

But Philip had an inveterate enemy in the Pope, Innocent III, who favored Otto of Brunswick, since the latter had promised, if elected, to do great things in establishing the power of the Church in his dominions. By favoring Philip, Premysl incurred the enmity of Innocent III, which was a great misfortune, since he needed the help of that prelate in several matters. In violation of the customs of those days, the Bohemians had chosen their own bishop, and they desired the Pope’s confirmation of this act; then Premysl wanted a divorce from his wife Adleta, and permission to marry another lady. After much negotiation, the Pope consented to grant these favors, but only on condition that Premysl withdraw his allegiance from Philip and transfer it to Otto.

For this act of obedience, the Pope showered his favors upon Premysl Ottokar. He confirmed all the old rights and privileges of Bohemia, so that they never again could be touched by the German emperors; at the same time the country was ranked among the other kingdoms of Christendom (1204). He acknowledged the independence of the country; declared her rulers to be kings equal in dignity to any princes of Germany. In those days, such declarations from the head of the Church were of inestimable value, since it was generally conceded that the Pope alone had the right to grant royal titles. In accordance with this theory, the first coronation of Premysl was declared null and void, and he was crowned a second time by the Pope’s legate, Cardinal Guido.

Another favor granted to Premysl, which filled the whole land with rejoicing, was the canonization of St. Prokop, the founder of the Sazava monastery.

Premysl Ottokar had espoused the cause of Otto against his own judgment, and the Pope also found that his confidence in that ruler had been misplaced. No sooner was Otto well established upon the imperial throne than he forgot all his promises to Pope Innocent, and, indeed, came out in open hostility against him. Refusing to be admonished, he was excommunicated, and Frederick of Hohenstaufen was declared his successor. This turn of affairs proved exceedingly fortunate for Premysl Ottokar. His sympathies being with Frederick, he espoused his cause with sincere joy, and it was through his assistance that Frederick was able to gain possession of the imperial throne. What high value Frederick placed upon the services of Premysl may be judged from the concessions he made to him: Bohemia should forever be a kingdom; the emperor should never impose any duties upon the rulers of that country, except the three hundred horsemen to accompany them to Rome, or, in default of this, three hundred pounds of silver; the investitures of the Bishops of Bohemia should be given by the Kings of Bohemia, and not, as had hitherto been done, by the emperor. In addition to this, several strongholds on the borders of the country were ceded to Bohemia.

Thus Premysl, by knowing how to take advantage of favorable circumstances, secured dignity and independence for his country. When he ascended the throne, the country was on the verge of ruin, and there is no doubt that if such a state of affairs had continued longer, Bohemia as Bohemia would have been blotted out of existence, being torn up into petty principalities, and divided among the various German princes.

Premysl Ottokar, fearing that what had been gained in his reign might be lost in the next, called a Diet, and had it pass a law in regard to the succession. The Diet, following the custom in vogue among other nations, passed the law of primogeniture, according to which Václav, the older son of Premysl Ottokar, was declared the successor. To give greater weight to this decision, Václav was crowned and made joint ruler with his father. The younger son was given the government of Moravia.

Before the close of Premysl’s reign, trouble arose between him and the emperor. Frederick had promised to give his oldest son Henry in marriage to Premysl’s daughter Agnes, who, for this reason, was brought up at the court of Leopold, the Duke of Austria, since, as the prospective empress, it was necessary that she should become accustomed to German manners and customs. When Agnes was seventeen years of age, Premysl expected that now the promise would be fulfilled; so what was his amazement when his daughter was sent back to him in disgrace. Leopold had persuaded the emperor to give Henry to his own daughter, Margaret. Premysl resented this slight by a declaration of war, which, aside from satisfying his offended dignity, led to no practical results.

Agnes was so deeply hurt that she abjured wedlock, choosing rather to spend her days within cloister walls. She joined the order of the Sisters of Clara; but, being a highly gifted woman, and having been educated with a view to public life, she could not rest content with spending all her time in devotional exercises. Although out of the world, she kept herself informed of its doings. Being greatly beloved by her brother Václav, she became his best friend and counselor. She was also held in high regard by the Pope, who often consulted her in matters of Church and State relating to Bohemia. Agnes had great influence in regard to the organization of benevolent institutions in Prague. She organized the order of St. Clara in Prague, which had a hospital connected with its convent. She was abbess of this convent for forty-eight years. However pious her life, and full of good works, she never forgot the slight put upon her by Henry, and, through her influence upon King Václav, she made that prince feel both her power and her enmity.

KING VÁCLAV I.

Premysl Ottokar died in 1230, and his son Václav, already crowned during the life of his father, ascended the throne without any opposition. This ruler, twenty-five years of age at the time he assumed the government, was a brave and spirited young man, energetic in his actions, but estranged from his people by his German education. Indeed, Václav loved everything that was foreign, and during his reign foreign manners and customs were introduced into the country as never before. This tendency to push Slavic customs into the background was already marked at his coronation. In the old days, the chosen prince was led to the simple stone seat, which was a sort of throne, and installed into his office in a very simple manner. He was given the leathern hand-bag and wooden shoes brought to Vyšehrad by the first Premysl, to remind him that princes come from the people, and hence derive their authority from them. But in the coronation of Václav, he was taken in great pomp to the cathedral, where, with magnificent ceremonial, he was crowned by the archbishop, thus indicating that his authority was derived from the Church, and not from the people.

The continual contact with the German nations, during the reigns of both Premysl and Václav, made the Bohemian people acquainted with the intellectual progress of Western Europe; but, at the same time, it was the means of introducing into the country many evil customs hitherto unknown. The higher classes became more and more luxurious in their mode of life, and in the same proportion as the lords waxed fat, the peasants upon their estates waxed lean, until servitude as grievous as slavery gradually became introduced into the country.

Václav set the example of luxurious living, by inviting into the country Ojir, of Friedberg, to organize a court equal in magnificence to any in Europe. For this service he received the fortress Bilin, with all the adjacent estates. In connection with the magnificent court came also the tournament, which was introduced into the country during this reign. The knights vied with each other in their rich coats of mail, their helmets and shields overlaid with gold and precious stones, satin cloaks embroidered with silver and gold, and costly trappings for their steeds.

King Václav was also an admirer of the fine arts, especially of poetry and music. Wandering singers and troubadours were always sure of a warm welcome at his court. A fragment of a love-song, said to have been composed by him, is still extant. Although Václav was very fond of music, there was one kind of music that he could not endure, and that was the ringing of bells. Whenever he was to pass through a town or village, couriers were sent ahead to warn the people not to offend his majesty’s sensibilities by ringing their bells.

At this time much stress began to be laid upon birth. For a man to be counted “good,” it was necessary that he could refer to his noble lineage at least from “four corners;” that is, both his parents and grandparents had to be of noble blood.

During the reigns of Premysl and Václav, the lords built many fortresses, imitating in this the nobles of other countries.

These fortresses, built by the different lords, helped to establish the custom of taking surnames. Up to this time no family names had been used. Some times a son, wishing to have some way of being known from other men of the same name, took the name of his father; but this name was not permanent. Thus, supposing his name was John and that of his father Herman, he would be called John Hermanov, which meant Herman’s John. But Hermanov did not remain the distinguishing name of his family; for his son, in turn, might assume his father’s Christian name. Permanent family names were at first assumed by the nobles from some device upon their standards, and from their castles or fortresses. Thus Sir Wok, whose device was a rose, built a fortress (1241–1246), and named it Rosenberg; after that the men of the family were known as the Lords of Rosenberg. The same may be said of the origin of Sternberg, Lichtenberg, Wartenberg, and others.

There was a peculiar custom in those days of giving the same name to several sons of the same family. Thus, a father of one of the old families, called Vitek, had five sons, of whom one was called Frederick, and all the rest Viteks; consequently Vitek was adopted as the surname, in the Bohemian language the plural being Vitkovci.

The common people soon imitated the higher classes, but they generally adopted as surnames the names of their occupations, or some event in their lives determined the question.

THE INVASION OF THE TARTARS.

The most important event in the reign of Václav was the invasion of the Tartars. Of all the barbaric hordes that swept like a flood upon Europe from the interior of Asia, that of the Tartars was the most terrible. The Tartars had their home in Northern Asia, in the vicinity of Lake Baikal. John Plan-Karpin, a brave monk, penetrated into the heart of their country, and made Europe acquainted with some of their customs and institutions. According to his account, the chief of the Tartars was Genghis Khan, who was not only the commander of their armies, but their prince and lawgiver. He possessed unlimited power over the lives and property of his subjects, but his office was not hereditary. He was elected by his lords, and had he attempted to gain his throne in some other way, his life would have been forfeit, and he would have been put to death without mercy. He was regarded as the son of God, the lord of the whole universe, whose duty it was to bring all nations into subjection. The army of the Tartars was subjected to the severest discipline, the smallest fault being punished by the execution of the whole division of ten, to which the offending soldier belonged. But the most dreadful crimes committed against the enemy were not only Ieft unpunished, but were praised and rewarded. From this it may be judged what an enemy Europe had to cope with. The Tartars first devastated and plundered a large part of Asia, and then turned against Russia. Many fugitives, glad that they escaped with their lives, brought to Europe the news of the fearful ravagings of those savage Mongolians.

The great powers at this time were the Pope and the emperor, and it was their duty to prepare Europe against the threatening invasion. The Pope, indeed, declared a Crusade, but took no active measures to organize and send the army against the enemy; and the emperor did not seem to realize the extent of the danger, and so did nothing to meet it. The luxury-loving, sentimental, and dissipated King of Bohemia, for once seemed to wake up to a realization of the magnitude of the danger threatening, not only his own dominions, but all Europe. The tournaments, the feasts, the hunting expeditions were all forgotten, and Václav bent every energy to put his country in a state of defense. The country was overrun by couriers bearing fiery appeals to all the lords to urge them to make every possible preparation to meet the enemy. Václav saw that new fortresses were built, and old ones repaired, and all was done with such haste that even priests and monks were impressed into service to help in digging trenches and building fortifications. In a short time the country was well fortified, and Václav, at the head of 46,000 men, 6,000 of whom were German allies, went to meet the enemy.

It has been estimated that the army of the Tartars numbered half a million men, although some historians place it at a much higher figure. It was divided into three parts; the first division was to attack northern Germany, the second Bohemia, and the third Hungary. Hungary was the first victim of the bloodthirsty savages; then the lot fell upon Moravia. The war was not carried on merely with the armies, but the people, men, women and children, were murdered without mercy, after enduring frightful cruelties. Some of the people, indeed, saved their lives by escaping to the forests, where they perished from sickness and starvation.

The army destined to invade Bohemia first fought a battle at Yobrem, in Poland. The Bohemian army was hastening to the assistance of the Poles, but did not reach them in time. King Václav wrote to Prague as follows: “When the Tartars were in Poland, we were so near that we could have reached the army of Duke Henry in a day; but he, alas! asking neither our help nor advice, alone risked a battle and woefully perished. Hearing this, we marched on, hoping with God’s help to avenge his death; but the Tartars, discovering our intent, took to flight, and in one day, from morning till night, marched a distance of forty-four miles.”

Some days after this, the Bohemians and Moravians joined their forces, and, aided by the army of Frederick of Austria, they waited for the enemy at Olmutz.

A severe battle was fought, in which the Tartars were defeated. They fell back to Hungary to join the rest of their forces, to be better prepared for another battle. But the second battle was never fought. Some time after the news reached the Tartar horde of the death of their chief, the great Khan of Tartary, and the commander of the army, wishing to take part in the election of a new ruler, hastened home, and the invasion was never renewed.

Although Václav was quite successful in war and in his relations with other nations, his domestic affairs were by no means happy.Václav’s Domestic Politics He had set all his hopes upon his oldest son Vladislav. At an early age he had had him betrothed to Kedruth, the daughter of the Duke of Austria, hoping by this marriage to bring about the union of Austria and Bohemia. But the premature death of the young man brought to naught all these hopes. The next heir to the throne was his second son, Premysl Ottokar; but Václav hated him, and for this reason had devoted him to holy orders. But when he saw that the people looked to Premysl as their future king, he gave him the government of Moravia; but at the same time he was on the lookout for some pretext to send him out of the country.

As Premysl Ottokar was a very promising young man, possessed of many qualities that would enable him to be a better ruler than his father, the lords determined to secure to him the succession, even against the wishes of Václav. A conspiracy was formed, and in 1248, while the king was gone to one of his fortresses in the country, the lords met in Prague, formally deposed him, and elected his son in his place. Civil war was the result. The events that followed are summed up by the historian of those times, as follows: “King Václav was driven from the throne. Queen Kunhut died of grief, schools in Prague were closed, a large part of the city was burned to the ground, and the guards of the churches left their posts and fled.”

Premysl’s army was much larger than his father’s; consequently he could easily have defeated him had he been willing to join battle with his forces; but this he would by no means do. Finally, through superior military skill, he succeeded in wedging in Václav’s army so that there was no hope left but defeat or starvation. A treaty of peace was made. Ottokar was declared the rightful ruler, Václav being assigned several fortresses. The Pope, however, declared this treaty null and void, since it had been made under compulsion. It was finally decided that the two kings should rule conjointly. This, however, did not satisfy Václav, and at the earliest opportunity he broke his oath, and attacked Ottokar so that he fled for his life. The king then took possession of Prague, and gave a grand church festival to celebrate the victory. To crown all, messengers were sent to the fugitive son, asking him and his friends to return to the city, as the king was ready to pronounce a general anmesty. They were received with great honor. The king embraced, not only his son, but also the other lords that had been in rebellion against him, giving them the kiss of peace.

This magnanimity on the part of King Václav proved to be but the impulse of the moment. Shortly after, he had some of the lords arrested and cast into prison. One of them was beheaded, and another broken upon the wheel. Premysl Ottokar was also imprisoned, but only for a short time. He was finally reinstated in his possessions of Moravia, where he remained till his father’s death in 1253.

STATE INSTITUTIONS.

Till about the middle of the thirteenth century the State policy, judicial methods, manners and customs in public and private life, were strictly Slavonic.

The country was divided into districts called zupas. Each zupa consisted of a fortified town or inclosure, with its citadel, and the adjacent fields belonging to the inhabitants. The chief officer of the citadel was the castellan, or zupan; in the town, the chief officer was the justice or squire, who, together with the sheriff, constituted the judiciary. In criminal cases, the whole town was held responsible, it being the duty of all the male inhabitants to go in pursuit of the criminal and bring him to justice; in default of which they were subject to a heavy fine. Cities with corporate towns were unknown until after the age of Ottokar II. The fortress connected with the town was built upon a plain, with easy access to water, since, in times of danger, it was the place of refuge for the inhabitants, together with their cattle. It is estimated that there were about forty such fortified towns in Bohemia. In addition to these, there were fortresses built by the wealthy land-owners or noblemen, for the protection of their families and dependents. These were usually built upon precipitous heights, where a small body of men could defend themselves against a superior force. There were also yillages built upon the estates of the noblemen.

The people very early began to be divided into classes. Those that owned land were a sort of aristocracy, and were called zemans. A part of these zemans were the nobility; but it is not possible to state exactly what was the difference between a common zeman and a nobleman. In general, it may be said that those zemans that were able to fit out a small body of men to aid their prince in time of war, constituted the nobility; while those that were obliged to go as soldiers themselves were the plebeians. Both the wealthier and poorer zemans had tenants upon their lands, called kmets, and the kmets, with their families, constituted the bulk of the population. They were sometimes called sedlacy, this name being applied to small land-owners in Bohemia at the present time. The kmets, as tenants, paid rent in kind, and did menial service for their lords; but as they were not attached to the soil, they can not properly be called serfs. In theory, the noblemen, zemans, kmets, tradesmen, and other people, were equal before the law; but, as might be supposed, the powerful soon learned to oppress the weak, and gradually the idea grew that the life of a man was valuable according as he had means and influential friends. There was an ancient law that provided that if a nobleman killed a peasant, he paid a greater fine than if the peasant killed the nobleman; but contact with Teutonic neighbors soon taught the Slavs to reverse this method.

During the continual struggles for the throne, the country being in a state of anarchy, the common people lost much of their original liberty. Sometimes the poor peasant, being plundered by each of the contending parties in turn, only saved himself from starvation by accepting land from some lord upon very severe conditions. On account of excessive taxation, the smaller zemans often sold their lands to the wealthier land-owners, and thus there was a constant tendency towards greater and greater inequality.

At first titles of nobility were not hereditary, being dependent upon the wealth and official position of the person; these being lost, he was again a plebeian. And thus it often happened that members of the same family belonged to different social classes. During the Crusades, many rights and privileges were granted to the knights and noblemen to induce them to engage in the enterprise.

In cases of inheritance, the property was divided equally among the children; but if a daughter had received her dowry at marriage, she had no further claim upon the estate of her father. In the division of property, the oldest son, called the “elder,” divided the property into equal shares, and the youngest son or daughter, as the case might be, had the first choice; then came the next youngest, and so on, the “elder” taking the last share. It is evident that it was to his interest to make as equitable a division as possible.

Questions of state were decided at the General Assembly. This was made up of the clergy, nobility, and the small land-owners, or zemans. The people who did not own land did not possess political rights, hence could not take part in the Assembly. As representation was unknown, it sometimes happened that the Assembly was made up of several thousand men, and consequently had to be held in the open air. The administration of the law was placed into the hands of twelve kmets. Their acts are referred to even as late as the fifteenth century.

 

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1. From this the curious custom of translating Vojtech to Albert, or vice versa, arose.
2. Some of the things promised by the soldiers were the following: Polygamy given up under penalty of loss of personal liberty; adultery to be punished in the same way; public houses to be destroyed—they were dens of wickedness; no business or manual labor to be performed on Sundays.