cell walls. Under ordinary conditions it is conjectured that these interspaces are filled with air, but it is pointed out that they can also be produced under circumstances which suggest that they are at times vacuous or partly so. According to the last-mentioned authors they appear to originate from a system of stresses and strains induced within the endosperm by its gradual loss of water, a break of continuity taking place which gives rise to these interspaces when the cohesive power of the heterogeneous cell-contents falls below a certain point. It is further suggested by them that the most important factor in producing the stresses and strains is probably the shrinkage of the starch granules as their water content is reduced from, say, 40 to about 15%. It is pointed out, however, that actual discontinuity in the cell-contents can only take place when the tensile strength of the protoplasmic matrix in which the starch granules are embedded has been surpassed, and this being so it might be anticipated that those cells which contain the larger amount of proteïn material would probably best resist the internal stresses and strains, a deduction in close agreement with observed facts, steely grains being as a rule richer in proteïn than mealy grains. Brown and his co-workers determine the coefficient of mealiness of a barley as follows: Five hundred corns are cut transversely in a corn cutter and the percentage of mealy, half mealy and steely corns is noted. The number 100 is taken to represent complete mealiness, 1 complete steeliness, and 50 the intermediate class. If the percentage of each class be multiplied by its special value, and the sum of the products divided by 100, the result is the coefficient of mealiness. By steeping and drying a very steely Scottish barley, the coefficient of mealiness was raised from 29.7 to 87.1, whilst concurrently the specific gravity fell from 1.417 to 1.289.
Barley even of the same kind varies widely in its chemical composition, but on an average the proximate constituents of British malting barleys be within the following limits:—
| Moisture | 18 | —12 | per cent. |
| Nitrogenous matters expressed as proteïns | 8 | —15 | ” |
| Fat | 2 | — 2.5 | ” |
| Starch | 60 | —65 | ” |
| Sugars | 1.5 | — 2.0 | ” |
| Gums | 1.7 | — 2.0 | ” |
| Fibre (cellulose) | 5 | — 7 | ” |
| Ash | 2 | — 2.5 | ” |
Any sample of barley which contains more than 20% of moisture would be considered damp. The late Professor Lintner expressed the view several years ago that a good malting barley should not contain more than 10% of proteïn, but R. Wahl asserts that in America six-rowed barleys containing a far higher percentage of proteïn are used successfully, indeed preferably, for malting purposes. The only precise knowledge we possess of the proteïn compounds of barley is due to the researches of T. B. Osborne. According to this observer, barley contains the under-mentioned compounds of this class in the following proportions:—
| Soluble in water | Leucosin (albumin) Proteose | 0.30 | per cent. | |
| Soluble in salt solution: | Edestin (globulin) | 1.95 | ” | |
| Soluble in 75% alcohol | Hordeïn | 4.00 | ” | |
| Insoluble proteïn | 4.50 | ” | ||
| ——— | ||||
| Total | 10.75 | ” | ||
It should be pointed out here that the above are only average values for the particular samples of barley investigated. Undoubtedly the nitrogenous constituents of different barleys vary widely in nature as well as in amount.
Raw barley contains enzymes, thus diastase of translocation, so called by Horace T. Brown and G. H. Morris, and catalase (H. van Laer). Proteolytic enzymes appear only to arise with the beginning of germination; but it has been asserted that raw barley contains proenzymes (zymogens), which can be rendered active by treatment with dilute lactic acid at an appropriate temperature. The action of the diastase of raw barley on starch has been studied by Julian L. Baker.
Barley should not be cut until it is properly ripe, but over-ripeness is much more to be guarded against by the maltster than premature cutting, as it is accompanied by a loss in germinative power. Moreover, unripe corn may to a certain extent be matured in stack, whilst a great improvement in germinative capacity is frequently produced by sweating. Very wet seasons are prejudicial to the ripening of the grain, and when the latter is stacked in too moist a condition it is apt to become what is known as mow burnt. Especially is this the case with barleys containing large percentages of nitrogen and of high enzymatic activities. Such barleys are denoted “warm” by M. Delbrück from their tendency to heat when stored in a moist condition. The effect of this heating is exhibited in the corns becoming black and discoloured at the tips; they are then said to be magpied. Even in an otherwise dry season a large amount of rain during harvest causes the corns to become “weathered,” whilst some of them begin germinating and rot. At the same time heavy dews at night whilst the barley lies cut in the field, or even a sprinkling of rain, assists in mellowing the grain, which often in consequence works the more freely on the malting floors. Properly harvested barley is all the better for remaining in stack for two or three months, as was the practice in former years; if, however, it has been stacked too wet the sooner it is broken down the better.
It is difficult to give any specific test for ripeness, but a series of observations has been made by H. T. Brown and F. Escombe. Samples of barley were taken from the field on the 20th, 24th and 29th of July, and on the 2nd, 6th and 10th of August, and preserved in spirit so that they remained in the same state as when they were gathered. Sections were then cut of these corns, when it was found that the progress of maturation is attended by deformation and ultimate disintegration of the cell nuclei. The change which is denoted by the term nuclear senescence is said to begin in the starch-containing cells, near the periphery of the corn, immediately underlying the layer next to the aleurone layer. This deformation is followed by complete disintegration of the nucleus, and at the end of seven or eight days nearly the whole of the endosperm has been involved. Brown and Escombe state that when this nuclear test is properly applied it stamps as immature those corns in a sample which are manifestly unripe owing to premature desiccation as well as those in which the ratio of nitrogen to carbohydrate is unduly high, owing to an excess of nitrogenous manure in the soil, or to sparser sowing with its consequent reduction of root competition. This method, interesting though it be, is not fitted for practical use, and the agriculturist must rely as heretofore upon empirical methods for deciding whether or not the grain has attained ripeness or maturity.
The bushel weight is a useful criterion in arriving at an opinion regarding the value of a sample of barley; but in basing judgment upon this factor regard must be paid to the fact already mentioned that if the grains be dressed closely the bushel weight is increased. The reason of this is that with the removal of the awns the corns pack more closely together. The best British malting barleys should weigh 52-56 ℔ per bushel, the standard weight for malting barleys being 56 ℔.
During the storage of barley access of air is necessary, otherwise the grain dies from asphyxiation. Sound barley after being kiln-dried retains its vitality for a number of years; but the statement that the corns found in the Egyptian mummy cases, in which they had remained for several thousands of years, were still capable of germination, is contrary to modern experience. Moisture must also be carefully excluded, as it initiates germination in a few cells only of the endosperm and causes heating. A constant repetition of wetting such as may take place on account of alterations of the atmospheric temperature, which causes moisture to be deposited, in the form of dew, may ultimately destroy the vitality and foster the growth and development of mould fungi which usually grow on broken and damaged corns. In this connexion the advantage of screening and sweating of barley before storing it will be apparent (see below).
An immense amount of damage is caused to the grain, during storage, by various insects, one of the most destructive of these being the common weevil (Calandra granaria). When fully developed this insect measures 16th to 18th of an inch in length, and is of a bright chestnut colour. The larvae are fleshy legless grubs, shorter than the perfect insect, with a series of tubercles along each side of the body; the head is round with strong jaws. The pupa is white, clear and transparent, showing the form of the future weevil. The female bores a hole in the grain with her snout and deposits an egg. The larva when hatched lives on the contents of the grain and undergoes its changes therein. Windisch asserts that only barley which has ripened in the granary is attacked by weevil. Grain which is only slightly attacked should be kilned at a temperature of 122° F., which destroys the weevil in all stages of development. To detect weevil in a sample of barley, the grain should be spread out on a sheet of white paper in bright sunlight. If weevils are present they soon appear, and betake themselves to a position outside the sunlight, to which they are averse. Treatment of the grain with carbon
