can dispense with its irritability, the one constant and essential property of every living cell. There thus devolves on each cell or group of cells some special work which contributes to the well-being of all, and their combined labors secure the necessary conditions of life for every cell in the community, and result in those complex and wonderful phenomena which constitute the life of the higher organisms.
We have hitherto considered the cell only as a mass of active nucleated protoplasm, either absolutely naked, or partially inclosed in a protective case, which still permits free contact of the protoplasm with the surrounding medium. In very many instances, however, the protoplasm becomes confined within resisting walls, which entirely shut it in from all direct contact with the medium which surrounds it. With the plant this is almost always so after the earliest stages of its life. Here the protoplasm of the cells is endowed with the faculty of secreting over its surface a firm, resisting membrane, composed of cellulose, a substance destitute of nitrogen, thus totally different from the contained protoplasm, and incapable of manifesting any of the phenomena of life. .
Within the walls of cellulose the protoplasm is now closely imprisoned, but we are not on that account to suppose that it has lost its activity, or has abandoned its work as a living being. Though it is now no longer in direct contact with the surrounding medium, it is not the less dependent on it, and the reaction between the imprisoned protoplasm and the outer world is still permitted by the permeability of the surrounding wall of cellulose.
When the protoplasm thus becomes surrounded by a cellulose wall it seldom retains the uniform arrangement of its parts which is often found in the naked cells. Minute cavities or vacuoles make their appearance in it; these increase in size and run one into the other, and may finally form one large cavity in the center, which becomes filled with a watery fluid, known as the cell-sap. This condition of the cell was the first observed, and it was it which suggested the often inapplicable term "cell." By the formation of this central sap cavity the surrounding protoplasm is pushed aside, and pressed against the cellulose wall, over which it now extends as a continuous layer. The nucleus either continues near the center, enveloped by a layer of protoplasm, which is connected by radiating bands of protoplasm with that of the walls, or it accompanies the displaced protoplasm, and lies imbedded in this on the walls of the cell.
We have abundant evidence to show that the imprisoned protoplasm loses none of its activity. The Characæ constitute an exceedingly interesting group of simple plants, common in the clear water of ponds and of slowly running streams. The cells of which they are built up are comparatively large, and, like almost all vegetable cells, are each inclosed in a wall of cellulose. The cellulose is perfectly transparent, and if the microscope, even with a low power, be brought
