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GAUME GAUTIER 649 the former Provincia Romana, Gallia Aquita- nica, Gallia Lugdunensis, and Gallia Belgica, to which were added the later divisions Ger- mania Superior or Prima, and Germania Infe- rior or Secunda, on the Rhine. Other sub- sequent divisions are less important. For more than two centuries after its conquest by Csesar, Gaul remained almost entirely quiet, and its Romanization proceeded rapidly, the national habits and religion retiring by de- grees toward the N. W. coast, and eventually finding refuge in the islands beyond it. The history of the country in the times of the Ro- man emperors, under the latter of whom it was Christianized, belongs to that of Rome. Civil wars and dissensions in the 3d century, and later the invasions of the Alemanni, Franks, Burgundians, Visigoths, Huns, and other barba- rians, brought about its decay. Clovis made it Frankish. (See FEANCE.) See Desjardins, Geographic de la Gaule, d'apres la table de Peutinger (Paris, 1870.) GAUME, Jean Joseph, a French author, born at Fuans, Doubs, in 1802, died March 22, 1869. He received holy orders at an early age, was appointed in 1827 professor of theology in the seminary of Nevers, and became successively director of that institution, canon of the cathe- dral, and vicar general. He is chiefly known as having led in the vehement opposition to the teaching of the pagan classics, which arose in France on the publication of his Le ver ron- geur des societes modernes (Paris, 1851). In this work he traces all the social evils of the last 400 years to the revival of pagan art and literature. In the angry controversy which ensued, he was successfully opposed by Bishop Dupanloup. In 1852 appeared Lettres a Mgr. Dupanloup sur le paganisme dans V education. In furtherance of his idea that no Latin or Greek authors should be read in the schools save such as are posterior to the 4th century, he began forthwith to issue Bibliotheque des -classiques Chretiens, latins et grecs (30 vols. 12mo, Paris, 1852-'5), and Poetes et prosateurs profanes compUtement expurges (2 vols., 1857). He was made a knight of St. Sylvester in 1841 by Gregory XVI., and a prothonotary apostolic by Pius IX. in 1854. Of his many other works, the most important are : Catechisme deperseve- rance (8 vols. 8vo, 1838 ; abridgment, 18mo, 20th ed., 1864, translated into English) ; His- toire de la societe domestique chez tons les peuples (2 vols., 1844); and Les trois Borne (4 vols., 1848). > GAUSS, Karl Friedrich, a German mathemati- cian, born in Brunswick, April 30, 1777, died in Gottingen. Feb. 23, 1855. He early display- ed such remarkable capacity for mathematical calculation, that the duke of Brunswick took charge of his education. At the age of 18 he solved a problem which had occupied ge- ometers from the time of Euclid, that of the division of the circle into 17 equal parts. In 1801 he published his Disquisitiones Arithme- tic, treating of indeterminate analysis or transcendental arithmetic, and containing, be- sides many new and curious theorems, a dem- onstration of the famous theorem of Fermat concerning triangular numbers. This gave him at once a distinguished place among scientific men. He was one of the first to calculate by a new method the orbit of the newly discovered planet Ceres, and afterward that of Pallas, for which he received from the French institute in 1810 the medal founded by Lalande. In 1807 he was appointed professor of mathematics and director of the new observatory at Gottingen, a position which he retained till his death. Having undertaken for the government of Han- over in 1821 the measurement of an arc of the meridian for trigonometrical purposes, he in- troduced important improvements in geodesy. To render the angles visible at as great a dis- tance as possible, he invented the heliotrope, which accomplishes the object by reflecting the rays of the sun, and devised a method for the correction of the errors which occur in an extensive system of triangulation. After the arrival of Weber in Gottingen in 1831 Gauss employed his leisure principally in the investi- gation of magnetism. He invented the mag- netometer for ascertaining the variations of the magnetic needle, and became member of the Magnetischer Verein, through the instrumen- tality of which valuable observations on ter- restrial magnetism were made and the results published (6 vols., Gottingen, 1837-43). His works mark an era in the history of science. As a mathematician he was pronounced by La- place the greatest in Europe. Among the more important of his works are : Theoria Motus Cor- porum Ccelestium (Hamburg, 1809 ; translated into English by C. H. Davis, Boston, 1857, and into German by Haase, Hanover, 1865); In- tensitas Vis Magnetic^ Terrestris (Gottingen, 1833) ; Atlas des Erdmagnetismus (3 vols., Leipsic, 1840); Dioptrische Untersuchungen (Gottingen, 1841); and Untersuchungen uber Gegenstande der hohern Geodesic (1845-'7). GAUTAMA. See BUDDHISM. GAUTIER, Jean Francois Engene, a French composer, born at Vaugirard, near Paris, in 1822. He became an excellent violinist, and produced many comic operas, the most success- ful of which, Flore et Zephire, was performed at the Theatre Lyrique in Paris in 1852. GAUTIER, Theophile, a French author, born in Tarbes, Aug. 31, 1811, died in Paris, Oct. 23, 1872. He was educated at the college of Charlemagne, on leaving which he entered the studio of Rioult to study painting; but, dis- couraged at the feebleness of his first attempts, he turned to literature, and became an ardent disciple of the school of Victor Hugo. His first volume of poetry, published in 1830, was followed in 1832 by Albertus, a legend in verse. He then wrote a series of articles on the poets of the time of Louis XIII., which were collect- ed and published in 1844 under the title of Les grotesques. In 1836 he began to write the arti- cles on theatres and fine arts in the Presse, and