Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 20.djvu/926

ZOLLMTEB. 788 ZOLLVEBEIN. solar temperature by investigating the intensity of the sohir radiations at their source. He also luaiie photometric observations of the Mercurian phases, determined the albedo (reflective ca- pacity) of several of the planets, and observed their' thermal conditions. He wrote: Grund- ziige einer allgemeinen Photometrie des Him- mels (1861) ; Photometrische VntersuclunKjen (1865) : Veher die Xattir der Kometen (1871, 3d €d. 1883) ; Prinzipien einer electrodynamischni Throrie tier Mutcrie (1876); TVissenschaftliche Abluindliingen (1877-81). He also edited Schus- ter's Giht es unbeiL-usste und rererhte Vorstel- luiujeitf (1879). In the latter part of his life he also turned his attention to spiritualistic and lu-pnotic studies. For his astronomical discov- eries, consult Gierke, History of Astronomy (Lon- don, 1803). ZOLLNEB, Karl Feiedrich (1800-60). A German composer, born at Mittelhausen, Thurin- gia. He studied niusie under Schicht at the Thomasschule in Leipzig, became an instructor of vocal music at the Eatsfreischule in 1820, and two years later established a musical institute ■with" his friend Hemleben. In 1833 he founded the Zollner-Verein, a male chorus society. In 1859 twenty of these societies held a grand musi- cal festival at Leipzig, and after his death united and formed the Zollner-Bund. In 1808 a monvnuent was erected to his memory in the Rosenthal. Leipzig. He deserves to be especially remembered for his compositions for male chorus, besides which his works include motets, songs for mixed chorus, and songs with pianoforte accom- )iaiiimrnt. ZOLLVEBEIN, tsol'fe-rin (Ger., customs- union ) . Any customs union between several ■countries, for the purpose of estaldishing uni- form customs tariffs between imports to and ex- ports from the countries within the union and •countries outside, while duties between the sev- eral contracting countries are reduced below the usual rate or al>olished altogether. The term as generally used has reference to the German Zollverein. which was initiated in 1818 and cul- minated in 1871 in the general customs union of the new German Kmpire. The necessity of meeting English competition in manufacture induced Prussia to take the lead in a movement to suppress the burdensome tariffs between the German States. By the law of Jlay 26, 1818, Prussia abolished all inter- nal customs, and enacted a general tariff, to be levied only at the boundaries of the kingdom. On .lanuai'y 18, 1828. Bavaria and Wiirtlemberg agreed to adopt a single tariff system, and to divide the net proceeds of the duties in projior- tion to their respective populations. A little later, February 14, 1828, Prussia and Hesse-Darm- stadt entered into a union based on the same principle. On September 24. 1828, the MiihUe (ierman Handclsverein was formed by Saxony, the Saxon duchies, Hesse-Cassel, Brunswick, Oldenburg, the minor Tliuringian States. Han- over, Bremen, and Frankfort, for the purpose of preventing the union of the two former. This jliddle fierman Union differed greatly from the two other unions in that it allowed each of the contracting States to levy such import duties as it chose, except on some enumerated articles ^■liich were admitted free. This movement suggested to Prussia the bold plan of uniting the three unions of the south, north, and middle into a single German Zollverein. On May 27,182y,a commercial treaty was effected between the North German and the South Ger- man unions. Each granted to the other mutual free trade for products of the several States, a uniform duty of 25 per cent, on certain manu- factured articles, and it was agreed that there should be a gradual approximation of both sys- tems of duties. On the 22d of March, 1833, the union of the Xorth and the luiion of the South adopted a system of complete customs and connnercial union, which was to go into efl'cct January I, 1834, for a period of eight years, and might be renewed every 12 years, unless de- nounced by either party to the agreement. Sax- ony and the States of Thuringia iited in 1833 into a Zollverein having a common tariff of export, import, and transit, and establishing free trade iDetween the contracting States except for certain enumerated articles. In 1834 Hanover, which had taken an active part in the formation of the union of the Mid- dle German States with Brunswick, Oldenburg, and some other States, organized a rival asso- ciation to the Prussian Zollverein under the name of the Steuerverein, which fixed duties nnich lower than those of the Zollverein. The rivalry of the Steuerverein did not check the growth of the Zollverein. In 1835 Baden and Xassau came into the union; in 1836, Frankfort; in 1841, Brunswick, which seceded from the Steuer- verein; and in 1842. Luxemburg. The Zollverein concluded treaties during these years with Eng- land, Holland, and Belgium. Austria had consistentlj' opposed the increas- ing power of Prussia by trying to block every connnercial union proposed by the latter Power. Prussia on its part wished to exclude Austria from any part in the proposed all-German Zoll- verein to be formed by the union of the Zoll- verein and the Steuerverein. Several States be- came dissatisfied with the attitude of Prussia, and at length Bavaria, Saxony, Wiirttembcrg. and Baden made the ratification of the treaty be- tween the Zollverein and the Steuerverein con- tingent upon the admittance of Austria into the new customs federation. After much negotiation, during which Austria threatened to form a rival union with the States of the South, Prussia was induced to sign on the part of the Zollverein a treaty granting certain commercial concessions to Austria. This treaty was to go into effect Janu- ary 1, 1S54, for 12 years. In 1861 a new difficulty arose when France proposed to the Zollverein complete reciprocity and freedom of transit, frecilom from export duties, and treatment as the most favored nation. Prussia alone conducted the negotiations, with- out consulting the other States of the Zollverein. On March 29, 1802, Prussia signed the convention with France, and some time after invited the other members of (he Zollverein to stand by the treaty. Saxony, by reason of its commercial in- terests, accepted the treaty. Bavaria. Wiirttem- berg, Hanover. Nassau, and Hesse-Darmstadt, on the contrary, refused 1o accept llie treaty and went with .Austria, which renmuiccd all idea of couunercial imion in 1864. and in 1865 Prus- sia dcCinilcly <'XclM(h'd ilial State from the Zoll- verein. During the war between Austria and