Chapter VII.
FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE HAPSBURG DYNASTY TO THE REIGN OF MATTHIAS.
FERDINAND I.
According to the agreement made between King Viadislav and the Emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand, the grandson of the latter, was to succeed to the Bohemian crown at the death of Louis; but as the Diet had not confirmed the agreement, it refused to acknowledge it, and therefore would not accept Ferdinand as their king. Ferdinand exhausted all his powers of argument and diplomacy in trying to prove his legal right to the throne, both because Vladislav had made the agreement, and because his wife Anna at the death of Louis was the only legitimate heir of Bohemia. His efforts, however, were not successful. Seeing that the Bohemians would not receive him as king on this basis, he changed his plan, and began to work for securing the crown by election. Among the candidates for the throne were the Polish king, the brother of the late King Vladislav, and Louis and William, the Dukes of Bavaria. Ferdinand proved to be the successful candidate, receiving the unanimous vote of the Diet. By this action the delegates showed that they had nothing against Ferdinand himself, but that they objected to the principle he tried to establish.
Thus the Bohemians, by their own free will, chose a member of the house of Hapsburg to rule over them. As Emperor Charles V, the brother of Ferdinand, had ceded to him Austria, this union of the crown of Bohemia with that of Austria was the beginning of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy; for the Hungarians also chose Ferdinand to be their king.
At this time the Bohemians were very jealous of their liberties. Before they would consent to elect Ferdinand, they laid before him certain conditions, to which he was obliged to subscribe. Among these the most important was, that the Bohemians, in choosing him, were not influenced by any considerations of hereditary rights, but that they elected him out of their own free will. He further agreed that he would make Prague his capital; that he would take no foreigners as counselors, nor give them offices in Bohemia; and the country was to be preserved in all its ancient rights and liberties. In February, 1527, Ferdinand came to Prague, and both he and Queen Anna were crowned in the palace at Hradschin.
As has already been said, Ferdinand was also elected to the throne of Hungary, thus uniting in his own person the three powers that now form the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. The Reign of FerdinandIt was not a centralized government, but merely a federal union, each State retaining its own autonomy. But hardly was the new king established in the government when he began to make plans how he might abridge the liberties of his subjects. When Ferdinand ascended the throne of Bohemia he was but twenty-five years of age, but he possessed the traits of a man old in experience. He had a strong will, and was exceedingly politic and crafty. He could conceal his designs, dissimulate, until the favorable moment arrived, when he could carry them into effect.
One of the favorite schemes of Ferdinand, that around which all his plans and aims centered, was to limit the powers of the States, and, if possible, establish an almost absolute monarchy. He was somewhat hindered in this by the continual war with the Turks, but, on the other hand, helped by the religious and political dissensions among the people.
At this time the officers in Prague were composed of Calixtines and Catholics, or, rather, the enemies of the new sect of Lutherans. One of the aldermen, a certain Pasek, who seemed to take the lead in affairs, perceiving that Ferdinand did not look with favor upon the new sect, began to persecute its adherents to such an extent that several were put to death by fire. Many were exiled from Prague. Ferdinand, not being pleased that a common citizen should arrogate to himself so much power, took up the cause of the persecuted, and ordered Pasek to recall the exiled citizens; and when he refused to obey, he was deprived of his office. The king also embraced this opportunity to break up the newly-formed union between the Old Town and New Town of Prague. The Lutherans returned to their homes, praising the justice of their king, which praise, however, proved untimely, as further developments prove.
Another method of abridging the liberties of the people, was the prohibition of the General Assemblies that were wont to be called by the citizens, unless they had obtained the express permission of the king.
In 1531, through the influence of his brother, Charles V, Ferdinand was elected, in Cologne-on-the-Rhine, King of the Romans, and therefore successor to the Imperial throne.
RETURN OF THE BOHEMIAN EXILES. The constant wars with the Turks gave Ferdinand a plausible excuse for making frequent calls upon the States for special taxation, who, intimidated by his strong will and energy of character, dared not oppose him. In this way the money carried out of the country amounted to such vast sums that there was scarcely enough left to defray the expenses of the home government. There was, however, one redeeming feature in this arbitrary form of government. Ferdinand succeeded better than his predecessors in curbing the proud nobles, and bringing law and order into the land. With law and personal security came also prosperity; consequently the people did not murmur much, even though they were obliged to pay exorbitant taxes to enable their king to carry on a war in which, as a nation, they had no interest.
Lutheranism spread so rapidly in Bohemia that its adherents, called Evangelicals, soon became the strongest sect in the country. The Religious Question.King Ferdinand hated this sect, and his taking them under his protection against the persecution of Pasek was done from political, not religious motives. As soon as he could find any plausible pretense, he tried to repress their growth. This, however, was quite a difficult undertaking. He could, to some extent, abridge the rights of the Evangelicals in Prague and in other royal cities, but he had no power to do so upon the estates of the nobility. He determined to oppose them in their Church organization, which, at this time, they were trying to bring to some permanent form. Thus far they had allied themselves with the Calixtines, then recognized as one of the State Churches; and, being in the majority, they tried to give this Church such an organization as agreed with the advanced views of the Lutherans. But Ferdinand insisted that they regulate their Church according to the Compactata, or withdraw from the union with the Utraquists. They, on the other hand, claimed that the time had come when they should be governed, not by the Compactata, but by the Word of God. As no conclusion could be reached, the matter was referred to a General Diet. This Diet, meeting in Prague in 1537, had all the sects represented except the Bohemian Brethren, who, on account of the austerity of their lives, were equally despised by both Catholics and Calixtines.
The Diet accomplished nothing. The Evangelicals insisted on the right of the States to elect their archbishop; and, as there was a strong probability that he would be of their sect, the king opposed this, and the Diet was dissolved, all the sects remaining under the authority of the Catholic archbishop.
In the year 1541 a terrible misfortune befell the city of Prague. A fire broke out, The Small Side Burned.and spread with rapidity that almost the whole of the Small Side was reduced to ashes. The royal palace, the St. Vitus Cathedral, then building, and almost all the private residences in the lower part of the town were in ruins. The greatest misfortune connected with this conflagration was the destruction of the public records. The news of this loss filled the minds of the people with consternation; for, in many cases, their rights and liberties were dependent upon these records, and they knew that they would soon be deprived of them, if no proof could be brought forward that they had once been granted.
When the new records were made out, it was agreed that two copies should be drawn up; but this was never done. King Ferdinand embraced this opportunity to establish his hereditary power in Bohemia. He asked the States to place in the new records, not that he had been elected their king, as was really the case, but that he had been accepted; and, having already felt his strong arm, they had not the courage to disobey him.
Besides the destruction of the Small Side, another grievous misfortune fell upon the country. The silvermines of Kuttenberg became filled with water. The king, not willing to invest money for their repair, they remained in ruins, and thus this city, once the second in the kingdom and the source of great wealth to the nation, now became neglected, and never again regained its glory.
Religious dissensions continually increased in Germany until it was evident that nothing but the sword could settle the difficulty. States in opposition to Ferdinand.The Emperor Charles V was the deadly enemy of all religious progress, and sought in all possible ways to place obstacles in its path. The Protestant princes, in order to be better able to defend their faith, formed a union called the Smalkald League, at the head of which were Hans Frederick, the Elector of Saxony, and Philip, the Landgrave of Hesse. The war that followed was the beginning of a long series of troubles, arising between Ferdinand and his Bohemian subjects. Desiring to aid his brother, the king asked the Diet to vote a subsidy to raise troops, saying that he wished to have an armed force ready in case the country should be invaded by the Elector.
The Diet complied with his request; but when the army was collected and equipped, the king, in direct opposition to the laws of the country, ordered it to march out of the country against the Elector. The officers, however, refused obedience, saying that no other authority except the State Diet could order them to lead their troops out of the country. Most of them returned home, and only a small part followed the king. This so enraged Ferdinand that he determined to mete out to them signal punishment. Some were fined, some imprisoned, and the king even went so far as to order one to be beheaded. There is no knowing to what extremes his wrath would have led him, had not his queen interceded in behalf of the offenders. This good Queen Anna unfortunately died soon after (January, 1547), and the Bohemians lost a faithful friend, who doubtless would have averted many of the misfortunes that befell the country.
In the beginning of the year 1547, Ferdinand issued a proclamation asking the States to be prepared to go out with him Struggle between Ferdinand and the States continued.to aid the emperor in the war against the Smalkald League. Such a document, issued without the sanction of the States assembled in a Diet, was a direct violation of the laws of the nation; consequently they refused to comply with the request. Still many of the lords met their sovereign in Litomeritz to discuss the question, and, if possible, come to some agreement. The king, being under great pressure, excused the omission of calling the Diet on account of the urgency of the case, and, further to conciliate his subjects, left it to their own free will whether they should help him with money or follow his standards against his enemies. Nevertheless, the proclamation caused a great deal of uneasiness in the minds of many of the more thoughtful citizens, who feared that he might again presume to violate their liberties.
Pressed by the murmuring citizens of Prague, the aldermen of the three towns called a great assembly, where a union was formed, whose purpose was to defend the liberties of the realm. Being joined by many Calixtine lords and knights, they drew up a memorial asking the king to renounce all that he had gained in the twenty years of his reign that was in any way prejudicial to the liberties of the country, especially the clause granted in 1545, establishing the heredity of the crown of Bohemia in the house of Austria. Messengers were sent to all parts of Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia, asking the States to join the union made at Prague.
The States then asked Ferdinand to call a Diet, in order that the difficulty might be settled. Fearing the consequences of openly opposing the union, he consented, and the proposed Diet met just after Christmas the following year.
While the Diet was in session, and the country had reason to hope much good would be accomplished, news came to Prague that struck a panic into the hearts of those who had joined the union. The two leaders in the Smalkald League were taken prisoners by the emperor. The members of the Diet, instead of considering what might be done to avert the threatening danger, thought only of their own safety. Some fled to their own estates, while those that remained in the city prepared a humble apology to the king. Ferdinand received the messengers with apparent kindness, but demanded the immediate dissolution of the union, since it was treason against the country and an insult to the dignity of the crown.
The delegates refused to do this, but instead, placed the memorial in the records of the nation, sending a new delegation with new excuses to the king.
The design of Ferdinand, now that he had the country at a disadvantage, was to bring it into complete subjection to his authority; but fearing lest too severe measures might arouse the nation to a desperate struggle, he decided to use his power against the cities only, sparing both the lords and the knights.
After the defeat of the armies of the Smalkald League, Ferdinand came to Prague with a large army, taking possession of the fortification at Hradschin, which commanded the whole city. Having thus gained control of Prague, he issued warrants to six hundred of the more prominent citizens, citing them to appear before him the 8th of June to be tried.
At first they refused to comply with the demand; but upon being assured that they should return to their homes without the loss of life or limb, they finally decided to obey the summons. On the appointed day they therefore made their appearance at Hradschin The king awaited them, seated upon an elevated throne and surrounded by his princes, bishops, and dignitaries of the whole realm. When the prisoners appeared, the public crier read to them the charges of treason made against them; upon which they fell upon their knees, beseeching his majesty to pardon them, and imploring the lords and prelates to intercede in their behalf. Contrary to his promise, the king prepared to take signal vengeance upon the unfortunate six hundred, who had dared to question his authority. This punishment was not aimed so much against the individuals as against the cities. They were to give up all the privileges granted them by his predecessors, all their firearms and other munitions of war, all the wealth recently bequeathed them by the wealthy citizen Arnold, and to agree to pay into the royal treasury duty upon every barrel of beer that was brewed. In addition to this, Ferdinand decided to inflict special punishment upon all those whom he deemed the most guilty. Some were held as hostages until the towns of Prague should fulfill the demands of the king; some were shut up in filthy dungeons, some tortured so cruelly that they died from the effects of their injuries, and some so maltreated that they lost their reason. Other cities that had joined the union were similarly treated; and further to strike terror into the hearts of all, two knights and two citizens were condemned to death.
After the court closed, Ferdinand called a Diet to meet on the 20th of August. This Diet was opened by the execution of the four prisoners, The Bloody Diet.and hence is known in history as the “Bloody Diet.” Some of the prisoners being heavily fined, while others were publicly whipped, the king then proceeded to business. He renounced some of the privileges that he had before deprived the cities of, but only such as were not at all prejudicial to his own power.
To rivet further his chains upon the unfortunate cities, he appointed two classes of police officers—the lower called richters, or squires; the higher, lieutenants. No public meeting could be held without their permission; and, this being secured, all proceedings were to be carried on in their presence. They also had jurisdiction in judicial questions, and were the direct spies of the government.
At the “Bloody Diet” an edict was issued against the Bohemian Brethren, who, by their firm adherence to the union, had brought upon themselves the displeasure of the king. Their churches were closed, and they were ordered either to join one of the State Churches, or to leave the country. Many of them found refuge in Poland and Prussia. John Augusta, their bishop, was seized and cast into prison, where he was confined for sixteen years.
The Diet being closed, the king, leaving his second son as regent, repaired to Augsburg where an Imperial Diet was held. In this Diet, the Emperor Charles, together with the princes of the empire, asked that Bohemia contribute her quota of taxation for the government of the empire; but Ferdinand opposed this with much energy, proving that his kingdom was entirely independent of the German States, and hence under no obligation to bear any of their burdens.
In the Diet held in Prague in 1549, Ferdinand induced the States to declare his first-born son, Maximilian, heir of the Bohemian crown.Maximilian, the Heir of the Bohemian Crown. One of the clauses in the agreement shows the decline of the liberties of the kingdom. When Ferdinand was elected, he agreed to make Prague his capital; but now this clause was so modified, that Prague was to be the home of the sovereign, as far as it was convenient, and when important business made it necessary for him to dwell outside the kingdom, to live as near as possible, thus pointing to Vienna as the future capital of the Austrian rulers.
Being successful in his political plans, Ferdinand decided to carry out his designs of Catholicizing the people. Ferdinand’s Religious Policy.By granting numerous favors, he succeeded in converting to his views some of the leaders among the Lutherans, and they subscribed to the innovations introduced by him. But when the matter was laid before the university, that body condemned the action as unscriptural. As Ferdinand just then had the Turkish war on his hands, for which he needed men and money from Bohemia, he dared not press his views too strongly, lest there should be an open rupture with the Diet, in which case he would have experienced some difficulty in securing the desired aid.
About this time the German princes gained a glorious victory, which freed them forever from the dominion of the Pope. This so encouraged the Protestants in Bohemia that they deposed the officers that had approved of the measures of Ferdinand, and appointed others who were known to be friendly to the most advanced views of the reformers.
Ferdinand, seeing that he could do nothing to prevent the spread of Protestantism by open measures, decided to work in another way. He invited into Bohemia large numbers of the newly-founded order of the Jesuits, to whom he gave the monastery of St. Clement in Prague. Here they established two colleges—one of theology, and one of philosophy. In course of time, these became formidable rivals to the old colleges of the Carolinum; for the Jesuits, with the zeal of a newly-organized order, spared no pains to win pupils, and, once within the walls of their college, they were not suffered to depart until they had been converted to the old faith.
From the year 1547, King Ferdinand spent most of his time outside of Bohemia, either carrying on the war against the Turks, or attending to the duties of the empire, having been elected to the imperial crown after the resignation of his brother, Charles V. During his absence, his second son was regent; for, although Maximilian had already been declared his successor, he regarded him with distrust on account of his leaning to the teachings of the Bohemian Brethren, and it was not till many years later, when he had modified his religious views, that his father received him into favor.
In the year 1560, Maximilian, as the younger king of Bohemia, came to Prague with his wife, the daughter of Charles V, and was crowned with great honor. Shortly after, he was also crowned as King of the Romans.
During his whole reign, Ferdinand never relinquished his design of undermining the power of the Protestants and strengthening the Catholics. To weaken the Evangelicals, he succeeded in establishing a firm union between the two established Churches, by obtaining permission from Pope Pius IV to have communion in both kinds given in the Catholic Churches. The news of this concession was proclaimed with great solemnity and glory by the archbishop himself, and the Jesuits of St. Clement immediately proceeded to give both bread and wine to their communicants. Ferdinand anticipated great things from this step on the part of the Church; but he did not live to rejoice in the results. He died the following year (1564). His remains were taken to Prague, and buried in the royal tomb in St. Vitus Cathedral.
The one motive that seemed to actuate this ruler was to raise the royal prerogative upon the ruins of civil and religious liberty. In the former he was successful, but not in the latter. Still he paved the way for future rulers, and gave a direction to the government that was followed by them, and ultimately brought the country to ruin.
The only good thing in his government was that there was order and security, and that, on the whole, the common people were prosperous.
MAXIMILIAN.
At the death of Ferdinand, his son Maximilian assumed the government of Bohemia. Besides this, he received as his inheritance both Upper and Lower Austria, was elected King of Hungary and Emperor of Germany. His brother Ferdinand received the government of Tyrol, and Charles that of Switzerland and Carinthia.
From Maximilian’s known inclination to Protestantism, the the Evangelicals, as well as the other Protestant sects, expected great things, but they were disappointed in their hopes. The Hapsburg rulers were so hemmed in by outside powers that they could show no favor to the Protestants, even if they had desired to do so. The elder branch of the house ruled in Spain, where they often were obliged to seek aid against the Turks and the neighboring German princes; and the support gained from the Pope could not, at this early day, be despised. Maximilian, therefore, could not become a Protestant; but he determined to grant as much liberty of conscience as he dared without incurring the displeasure of the Pope. He tried to establish unity among the various Protestant sects, but found them far more intolerant of each other than he had expected. As his father had gained a great deal by allowing the cup to be used at communion in the Catholic churches, so Maximilian thought that much might be gained if the Catholic priests were allowed to marry. But here he found Rome so obstinate that he was obliged to abandon the design.
The Protestants, greatly encouraged, now asked for the revocation of the Compactata, and that henceforth the Word of God should be the sole guide in matters of faith. This being granted, they now begged that the Consistory be chosen anew by themselves. As this doubtless would have given the majority to the more advanced Protestants, the king refused it, not wishing to infringe upon the rights of the Calixtines. The new sects, however, did not allow themselves to be baffled in their purpose. For a while they were silent, waiting to bring forward their claims when a more favorable moment should arrive.
In 1575 a Diet was convened at Prague, at which the king asked two favors; he needed a much larger subsidy than usual to defray the expenses of the government, and he wanted his son Rudolph to be declared his successor. The Diet, in which the majority of the members were Protestants, refused to take these questions into consideration until the king should allow them to elect their own Consistory, and grant them permission to be governed by the Confession of Faith drawn up by the Evangelicals and the Moravian Brethren. Maximilian was quite willing to make these concessions, knowing that by so doing he would secure from the Diet what he desired; but he dared not do so without the consent of the Pope.
Messengers were immediately sent to Rome, and eight months elapsed before they returned with the unwelcome news that the Church would never consent to such innovations. This threw the king in a great dilemma; it was equally perilous either to grant or refuse the request of the Diet. He therefore determined to seek safety in a compromise. The churches were granted the privilege of electing “Defenders,” who should guard their rights, and by whom they were to be governed in matters of faith. As this virtually removed the new churches from the authority of the old Consistory, the Diet was satisfied, and willing to acquiesce in the demands of their sovereign; and accordingly the desired subsidy was voted, and Rudolph was declared the rightful heir of the Bohemian crown.
During the brief reign of Maximilian, the Bohemians gained much religious liberty, and Protestantism greatly increased in strength and numbers. The more progressive people looked with great hopes to the future; but, unfortunately, their good king, long in feeble health, died after a reign of but three years, being in his fifty-eighth year.
RUDOLPH II.
Rudolph II, who succeeded Maximilian both as king and emperor, did not resemble his father either in nobility of character or enlightenment of mind. Educated in Spain by the Jesuits, he was intolerant even from childhood. His mind, naturally gloomy and dull, was not at all brightened by the mass of superstition that formed the bulk of his education. Still he possessed a taste for many occupations, that in a private man would have been commendable; but in a sovereign, who, on their account, neglected the weightier duties of the State, they were not only undesirable but positively injurious.
RUDOLPH II. He spent much of his time in painting, carving, and in studying alchemy and astrology. The one redeeming feature in this was that he gave considerable encouragement to artists, sculptors, and scholars of all kinds. Tycho Brahe, being persecuted in his own country, found refuge at the court of Rudolph; and the distinguished Kepler also found there better opportunities to pursue his astronomical investigations than in Prussia.
Rudolph never married, but had an unacknowledged wife and several children, of whom he was very fond. Still he was not loyal to his family, his private character being anything but exemplary.
As soon as Rudolph became king, he made Prague his capital, and thus it also became the center of the imperial power of Germany. In those days Prague presented a gay appearance, containing, as it did, many foreign ambassadors with their splendid retinues and resident noblemen, who vied with each other in the magnificence of their establishments. Rudolph increased the effect by importing into the city works of art, curiosities, and even curious plants and animals.
But as far as government was concerned, that was sadly neglected. The king, too indolent too carry it on himself, and too suspicious to intrust it to some men of ability, managed matters in some sort of way himself, as he imagined, when in reality he was the mere puppet in the hands of some wily favorite, who in his turn was a willing tool of Spain and the Jesuits. Indeed, matters came to such a pass that even ambassadors from great nations could not obtain a hearing before the emperor unless they first bribed the favorite then in power. Often measures of great moment were passed without the knowledge of the king; for the older he grew, the more he shunned all intercourse with the world.
In course of time the Jesuits succeeded in getting the government entirely into the hands of Catholics, to the great prejudice of the Protestants, who constituted the bulk of the population. At this time the Catholics constituted about one-twentieth of all the people, and therefore it can be seen how unjust it was to allow them to manage affairs entirely to their own interests.
Although the Jesuits did all in their power to gain influence and start an anti-Protestant current of thought, Troubles begin.there was little change until the death of Sir William of Rosenberg, the Burggrave of Prague. This nobleman, although a Catholic and devoted to his sovereign, was nevertheless so zealous a patriot that he would sanction nothing that could in any way compromise the liberties of any of the people of the kingdom. But when Sir William died, the chief power was obtained by several men who had been the pupils of the Jesuits; among these the most prominent being George of Lobkovic, Jaroslav of Martinic, and William Slavata, two of whom figure so prominently at the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War. In Moravia the most zealous workers for the spread of Catholicism were Cardinal Dietrichstein, the Bishop of Olmutz, and Sir Charles of Lichtenstein. These noblemen and prelates began the work of conversion to Catholicism by forcibly shutting up the churches of the Protestants upon their estates, and by compelling the members, by whippings, fines, and other persecutions, to attend mass in the Catholic churches. Their example was followed by other Catholic lords, till, on some occasions, the people driven to despair, turned upon their oppressors, and bloody skirmishes were the result. No redress could be obtained for this injustice; for the perpetrators were rather praised than punished, since they showed such zeal in reclaiming people to the true faith.
The king’s gloomy temperament constantly increased until his mind gave way to insanity. Rudolph insane.The first appearance of this was in 1600, when he imagined that conspirators were about him trying to take his life. This state of his mind continued many months; but when negotiations were afoot with the Pope and with Spain about appointing his oldest brother Matthias his succeessor, he suddenly recovered and resumed the government. This attack of insanity was followed by others; but in the intervals his mind seemed to be clear, and he would by no means consent to give up the crown.
By the exertions of the more zealous Catholics, an edict was passed against the Picards, as the Moravian Brethren were called by their enemies.The Anti-reformation. Their chief church in New Boleslav was taken from them, and they were persecuted in many other ways. The Evangelicals were alarmed by this action, seeing in it a portent as to what they themselves might expect, but they were powerless to avert it. The Catholics, however, were content to make haste slowly, knowing that if matters went on as they did, they would soon be able to advance a step further. They were also encouraged in this belief by what took place in Styria.
In the first years of the reign of Rudolph, Styria was governed by Archduke Maximilian, the brother of the king. He ruled all classes with justice and moderation; consequently the Protestants increased in numbers and strength. But all this was changed when, at the death of the archduke, his son Ferdinand, a pupil of the Jesuits, succeeded his father in the government. He abrogated all the privileges that had been granted to the Protestants, drove their clergy out of the country, putting Catholic priests in their places. Thus within a short time he succeeded in changing his almost Protestant dominion into a Catholic one, where the most favored class of people were the Jesuits. Having this example before them, the more zealous Catholics resolved to secure the same results in their own land; but as Bohemia did not seem quite ripe for any radical measures, they decided to begin the work of reform, or rather persecution, in Silesia and Hungary.
The Hungarians were especially unfortunate in being the object of the king’s persecution. Not content that he had encroached so much upon their liberties as to divide their kingdom into three parts, he called a Diet at Pressburg, where he had the audacity to ask that they all come back to the Catholic faith, drive their clergymen out of the country, and replace them by Catholic priests. This unreasonable demand drove them into revolt. They chose as their leader Stephen Boskay, a wealthy noble of Transylvania, who had sought redress in Prague, but in vain. An alliance was made with the Turks, and a new war began, more cruel than those that had preceded it. As Rudolph could not withstand the united power of the Turks and the Hungarians, he gave his brother Matthias authority to make peace, which when the latter with great difficulty succeeded in securing, the king refused to confirm it, objecting to the clause granting religious liberty.
In the danger that threatened the country unless the treaty of peace were ratified, Matthias against Rudolph.Matthias called all the members of the house of Austria to a consultation in Vienna. They elected him their head, giving him full authority to take such measures as he saw fit to ward off the coming storm. From that time Matthias began to work openly to induce the king to resign the government into his hands. With this end in view, he spared no pains to win the favor of both Bohemian and Moravian lords and prelates. He was the more successful in this on account of the increased illness of the king, whose insanity at this time (1608) had reached its worst form, tendering him a raving maniac, who tried not only to take his his own life, but laid violent hands upon any one who happened to be near him when the fit seized him. As the king’s condition seemed hopeless, both Protestants and Catholics looked to Matthias as the one who alone could bring safety and stability to the government. Thus it was that he had among his adherents Charles of Lichtenstein, the most fanatical of all the Catholics, and Charles of Zerotin, of Moravia, one of the most zealous members of the Church of the Moravian Brethren.
The favorable moment having arrived, Matthias called a Diet at Pressburg, to be composed of delegates both from Upper and Lower Austria, and from Hungary. At this Diet it was decided to guard the peace that had been made with the Turks. On his own responsibility, Matthias appointed a Diet to meet at Ivancic, Moravia, hoping that thus both the Bohemians and the Moravians would join the confederation. These proceedings alarmed Rudolph, and he consented to ratify the Turkish peace. But it was too late. Matthias proceeded with the Diet, and there the States promised to stand by each other, not only for the peace with the Turks, but for every other measure that was just and proper. Matthias then organized a temporary government, placing Charles of Lichtenstein at its head, and the Moravians began to call themselves “the faithful subjects of Matthias.”
Matthias now tried to carry out the same plan in Bohemia, and accordingly appointed a Diet to meet at Caslau, himself starting for the country with an army of 25,000 men.
Rudolph, now greatly alarmed, called a Diet to meet at Prague, and the States readily responded to the call, while but a very small number made their appearance at Caslau. The king asked aid of the Diet against his brother, who evidently intended to usurp all his power. The States now decided to turn the dilemma of the king to their own advantage; and therefore, before they would consent to discuss the need of the hour, they drew up a series of articles demanding a guarantee for full liberty of conscience. These resolutions bore the signatures of all the higher States professing the Protestant faith, and also of the royal cities, with the exception of Kodan, Budweis, and Pilsen. Sorely pressed, Rudolph agreed to all the articles except two, that provided for full liberty of conscience to all, irrespective of the class to which they belonged. The Diet then voted men and supplies to aid the king against Matthias.
The army of Rudolph soon equaled in numbers that of Matthias; still the latter marched into the country until within a mile from Prague. The two brothers then began to treat for peace. With the consent of the Bohemian States, Rudolph ceded to Matthias the government of Hungary, the whole of Austria, and Moravia, and recommended him to the States as his successor.
Matthias, returning to his government as the victor, convoked a Diet to meet at Brünn, where the Moravian lords should do him homage. The Protestants asked some guarantee that their rights and privileges would be respected; but they could obtain no concessions from their new sovereign, and were obliged to be contented with the promise that things would remain as they were.
As had been agreed upon between Rudolph and the States, a Diet was called in January, 1609, in which the chief question to be settled was that of religion.The Diet of 1609. After endless negotiations, the king declared that he should violate his coronation oath, and act contrary to the time-honored custom among Catholic princes, did he give his protection to other than the two acknowledged sects, the Catholic and Calixtine. With this he pronounced the question of religion settled, and asked the Diet to proceed to other business, which when it delayed to do, he declared it adjourned.
This decision caused great commotion, not only among the members of the Diet, but also among the people of Prague. The Protestant delegates armed themselves, and marched to the city hall of New Town, followed by an immense concourse of people, armed with such weapons as they could seize. The king hearing of this uprising, sent messengers to pacify the excited people, promising to call a new Diet, where the religious question would be settled. This concession on the part of the king, was made against the wishes of his Jesuitical advisers. Zdenek Popel of Lobkovic, William Slavata, and Jaroslav of Martinec, who thus greatly incensed the people against themselves.
When the new Diet met, Rudolph resorted to his old method of procrastination. Finally, when he could find no other pretext for refusing the demands of the Diet, he said he must refer the matter to the electors of the empire. As such a proceeding would have compromised the independence of the Bohemian kingdom, the States determined to resort to arms to defend both their religious and political liberties. A body of thirty directors were elected, who were to have the government in their hands and immediately raise an army for the common defense. The leaders in this revolt were the Count of Thurn, Linhard of Fels, and John of Bubna. The States of Silesia also joined this league.
Rudolph, perceiving that the States were determined to proceed to extreme measures, with a great deal of reluctance, finally consented to their demands.The Letter of Majesty. Accordingly, he issued his famous Letter of Majesty, July 9, 1609. By this document the Bohemian Confession of Faith was confirmed, the Consistory and the university were placed under the control of the Protestants, and defenders were appointed to watch over the interests of both.
When the Letter of Majesty was presented for signature to the chief chancellor, Popel of Lobkovic, he declined to sign it, saying he could not do so without doing violence to his conscience. In his place, the Burggrave of Prague, Adam of Sternberg, affixed his seal.
By the Letter of Majesty a complete union was effected between the Moravian Brethren and the Evangelicals, both in matters of faith and in Church organization. The administrators in the Consistory were, one professing the Evangelical faith, and one belonging to the Brethren. Some of the other provisions of this document were, that the States might build schools and churches upon their lands, but were not allowed to compel their subjects to attend either; the lords and knights were to have the privilege to call to their Churches priests ordained either according to the old Utraquist system, or according to the new; in the royal cities, and upon the crown estates, the citizens were to enjoy the privilege of building churches wherein the worship should be either Catholic or Protestant as they wished.
Then Rudolph proclaimed an amnesty, whereby he declared that no one should be held to answer for participation in the above defense of their rights. This amnesty was signed also by the Catholic lords, except by the three above mentioned, the chief chancellor, Slavata, and Martinec. Upon the refusal of these lords to sign the amnesty, the States entered a protest in the public records, that in the future, should any one do anything to violate the provisions of the Letter of Majesty, the three lords would be looked to as the cause, since in refusing to sign the amnesty they showed themselves to be the enemies of peace and harmony. The Silesians also gained similar liberties to the Bohemians. This business being settled, the States dismissed their forces, and proceeded to the other questions, and for a while it seemed that peace and harmony were restored to the land.
The loss of so many possessions weighed heavily upon the mind of Rudolph, and he constantly thought how he might regain them. Rudolph’s Plots.He first turned to the electors of the empire, but gained nothing there except that Matthias should acknowledge him his liege lord. He then appealed for help to Archduke Leopold, the younger brother of Ferdinand of Styria. Leopold was a daring young man, who, although destined for a clerical life and already possessing two bishoprics, that of Passau and Strasburg, nevertheless was eager to embark in any enterprise that might win him glory.
With the sanction of Spain, that of Archduke Charles and other princes, Rudolph entered into an agreement with Leopold, whereby that prince was to humble the States of Bohemia, to nullify the Letter of Majesty and take vengeance upon its authors, get himself declared the successor of Matthias, and compel him to restore his dominions to his brother.
Leopold was so far successful in his plans that, partly by force and partly by artifice, he succeeded in gaining possession of Budweis, Krumlov, Pisek, Tabor, and several other cities, and finally took stand upon the White Mountain, about three miles from Prague.
As soon as the Protestant States saw the proceedings of the armies of Leopold, they met in Prague and asked the king the meaning of this invasion. To satisfy them, he ordered the army of Leopold to leave the country; but knowing his wishes, instead of departing, they advanced to the Small Side, and made preparations to force their way into the Old Town. About two thousand of them succeeded in crossing the bridge, but the gate was closed behind them, and most of them were slain. A report was spread among the people that many of the invaders had obtained refuge in the convents, whereupon these places were attacked by the enraged people, the monks murdered, and the houses plundered of their goods, The king, feeling confident of victory, ordered the Old and the New Towns to open their gates to the invaders and take an oath that they would join the side of Leopold to serve their emperor against every opponent; which when they refused to do, he had the cannon set up so as to have the whole city at his mercy.
In this extremity, the States fitted out an embassy to Matthias, asking him to come to defend them against their oppressors. They also sent for aid to Moravia, and hastened to raise all the troops they could upon their own estates. The army of the people increased day by day, and when a force of 8,000 Hungarians reached Prague, the invaders became alarmed and fled from the city. But it was too late; they were pursued, and thousands of them overtaken and slain.
Rudolph was now left to his fate. The Protestant States, learning wisdom by experience, refused to stand by a prince who was but a toy in the hands of their enemies, and whose given word could not be trusted.
As soon as the invaders had Ieft the country, Count Thurn surrounded the Hradschin so as to prevent the escape of the king. In the meantime, Matthias arrived at Prague, being received with great honor. Rudolph was compelled to abdicate in favor of his brother, giving up to him the rest of his possessions. Matthias was received as king by the States, and crowned, after confirming all the liberties of the kingdom.
The deposed king was given a residence in the citadel of Prague, where he died of grief in less than a year, being then in the sixtieth year of his age.
Some time after these events, Matthias was crowned at Frankfort as Emperor of Germany (1612).