lish Universal History, with notes, and four vols. of illustrative additions; and he brought out German editions of the French historical works of Niceron, De Fresnoy, Rapin, and others. He died 4th July, 1757. His life was written by Semler, under whom the freedom of investigation inculcated by his master, degenerated into a boldness and hardihood, such as Baumgarten had given no example of; and the pietism of Halle gave place by a singular reaction to what is now called in Germany the vulgar rationalism. Baumgarten's published works were very numerous, but they were superseded by the writings of the succeeding age.—P. L.
BAUMGARTEN, John Christian Gottlob, a German botanist, was born at Lucknau in Lower Lusatia, on 7th April, 1765, and died about 1830. He was the author of a Flora of Transylvania and of Leipzig, a dissertation on the use of elm-bark, and a treatise on the decorative art.—J. H. B.
BAUMGARTEN, Martin von, a German sculptor, born at Dresden in 1640; established himself in France where he executed several of his best statues for the palace of Versailles.—R. M.
BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, Detlev Karl Wilhelm, was born at Dresden, January 24, 1786, and educated at Grimma and Leipzig, where he devoted himself to the study of theology and the classics. In 1833 he was appointed head-master of the Landes-schule at Meissen, one of the oldest and most renowned grammar-schools in Saxony, where, till his death on the 12th May, 1845, he was incessantly and successfully engaged in improving the old pedantic discipline, in propagating a sound and useful knowledge, and in imparting a high moral sense and true christian spirit to the whole institution. Besides his much valued editions of Suetonius and of the Odyssey, he has published a number of popular German writings.—K. E.
BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, Ludwig F. Otto, a distinguished German theologian of the first half of the present century, was born 31st July, 1788, at Merseburg, where his father, Gottlob August Baumgarten, author of a treatise entitled "Schrift und Vernunft," held a dignified position among the clergy of the town. After attending the gymnasium of his native place, he studied at the university of Leipzig, where he took his master's degree in 1808, and commenced teacher in the philosophical faculty in 1809. In 1812 he became extraordinary professor of theology at Jena, where he spent the rest of his life, being appointed ordinary professor of theology in 1817, and rising to be primarius and senior of the theological faculty in 1835. He died suddenly of apoplexy, 31st May, 1843. With the exception of church history, he read lectures in all the departments of theoretical theology, and he was the author of several works of merit in New Testament exegesis, biblical theology, dogmatics, ethics, and dogmatic history. His principal writings are, "Grandzüge der Biblischen Theologie," Jena, 1828; "Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte," 1832; "Opuscula Academica," 1836; and "Compendium der Dogmengeschichte," Leipzig, 1840. The last-named work was left unfinished, but was completed in 1846 by his colleague Hase, who also prefixed a preface containing an estimate of the author's character and merits. Brought up by his father in the orthodox principles of the Lutheran church, he continued steadfastly attached to the fundamental truths of the gospel during a period of abounding rationalism, and in a university where that system had many distinguished supporters. But he took no prominent part in the controversies of the age; he was entirely devoted to the pursuits of tranquil study, and he earned the fame of a divine equally free and acute in his scientific spirit.—P. L.
BAUMGARTNER, Johann, a German sculptor, born at Bamberg in 1744; died in 1792; was the modeller of the horses on the Potsdam gate at Berlin.—R. M.
BAUNY, Etienne, a celebrated French jesuit, professor of humanity and of theology, was born at Mouzon in Ardennes in 1564, and died at St. Pol de Leon in Bretagne in 1649. His works, a list of which is to be found in the Biographie Ardennaise of Bouillot, contain one of the most complete and ingenious systems of casuistry ever published.—J. S., G.
BAUR, Ferdinand Christian, a distinguished critic and divine of Germany, was born at Schneiden, 21st July, 1792. The usual course of education being completed, his acute mind and singular erudition soon raised him to the professorate. After occupying a chair in one of the inferior universities, he was translated to Tübingen in 1826, where he founded a new theological school, commonly named the Tübingen or Tübingensian school. The disciples of Baur have, as has often happened, outdone their master, and Schwegler and others assert where Baur would hesitate, step boldly in where the more erudite and cautious Coryphaeus would fear to tread. The works of the Tübingen school have advocated a destructive criticism, which would sadly mangle the scriptures, and leave us but a few disjointed fragments. Yet their arguments are almost wholly subjective—the mere expression of individual tastes and predilections, are therefore varying, capricious, and baseless, opposed alike to historical testimony and true scientific investigation. Baur's works are of various kinds. There are his critical works, in which he applies his peculiar principles to the documents of the New Testament, such as his "Sog. Pastoralbriefe des Paulus," in which he labours to prove that the epistles to Timothy and Titus were not written by Paul, chiefly because of allusions which, as he thinks, belong to the Gnostic philosophy of a later period, and he holds that they were written during the Marcionite heresy; his "Kritische Untersuchungen über die canonischen Evang.;" and his "Das Marcion-evangelium," &c. Another class of his works exhibit his thorough devotion to the Hegelian philosophy, as his "Symbolik und Mythologie," &c.; "Das Manichaensche Religiois system." Another and far more important section of his writings are those which treat critically and historically of certain doctrines. To this class belong his "Geschichte der Versohnung-lehre," &c., History of the doctrine of the Atonement and his doctrine of the Trinity and Incarnation—"Lehre von der Dreieinigkert und Menschwerdung Gottes," 3 vols. These treatises are distinguished by a rare subtilty and learning, and by a peculiar facility in defining and developing the opinions of others who have written on the subject discussed. Baur has a special aptitude for this difficult work of re-presentation, seizing on the various shades of opinion, bringing out its delicate modifications, and reproducing in vivid and impartial form the belief and theology of various ages of the church, whether these be primitive, mediæval, or modern, or are marked by scholastic refinement or metaphysical distinctions. For example, in reference to the atonement, you have it as the Apologists taught it, as Anselm viewed it, as the English divines portrayed it, as Luther preached it, as Calvin delineated it, and as Schleiermacher depicted it, with multitudes of others, through all the grades of opinion which have been promulgated for eighteen centuries. The principles of criticism which the Tübingen school have adopted, are very vague and uncertain. In his "Paulus," &c., 1845, Baur impugns the genuineness of all the epistles but four, and that for the merest dreams. His rejection of so many epistles, is called by Alford "the insanity of hypercriticism." His argument is often of this nature,—Because the writer uses favourite phrases, he cannot be Paul, but a plagiarist repeating him; if he use uncommon phrases, he cannot be Paul, but an imitator in disguise. Pauline phraseology and unpauline phraseology is alike, with him, evidence of forgery. The publication of the Philosophoumena of Hippolytus, was a sad blow to Baur and his followers, for this old writer quotes books of the New Testament as current in his time, and before it—which, as the Tübingen school had chosen to demonstrate, could have had no existence till a period long after his death. The influence of Baur has been great in Germany, and his penetration, honesty, and acquirements are universally acknowledged. He died in 1866.—J. E.
BAUR, Frederick William, a German general, born at Bieber in the electorate of Hesse in 1731; died at St. Petersburg, 4th February, 1783. He entered when very young into the corps of engineers, and distinguished himself under the duke of Brunswick during the seven years' war. In 1769 he entered the service of Russia, and was employed by the Empress Catherine in several important public works.—G. M.
BAUR, Samuel, born at Ulm, 1768; died in 1832. One of the most voluminous writers of Germany; author of a historical and biographical dictionary, translator of the "Caracteres de la Bruyère," and one of the contributors to the German Encyclopedia of Ersch and Graber.
BAUSA, Gregorio, a Spanish painter, born at Majorca in 1590; died at Valencia in 1656; pupil of Francisco Rivalta, whom he equalled in all but the correctness of design; executed a large number of pictures for the churches of Valencia.—R. M.
BAUSAN, John, a celebrated naval officer, born at Gaeta in 1757; died in 1821. He embarked when very young on board the Marlborough, and fought for three years under the
