flourished in the thirteenth century, and acquired a profound knowledge of various tongues, living and dead. While yet a mere youth, Gotofrid left Ireland and proceeded to Arabia, in order to perfect his studies in the language of that country. He translated several treatises from the Arabic, Latin, and Greek into French. Three of these treatises, bound in vellum, are still preserved at Paris in the library of M. Colbert, together with fourteen sermons, translated into French.—W. J. F.
GOTTER, Friederich Wilhelm, a German poet, was born at Gotha, September 3, 1746, and died in his native town, 18th March, 1797. He studied at Göttingen, and afterwards held various situations in the service of the duke of Gotha. Conjointly with Boju he edited the first German Mesenalmanach, 1770. He wrote comedies, some of which enjoyed a great popularity, Singspiele, and lyric poems. He also translated several of Voltaire's tragedies. He followed French models.—K. E.
GOTTESCHALCUS or GOTTSCHALK, a celebrated predestinarian theologian of the ninth century, was brought while yet a child to the monastery of Fulda by his parents, and was educated there under the influence of the Abbot Rabanus Maurus. When he attained to manhood he was anxious to be relieved from his monastic vows, but all that he could effect was to obtain a transference from Fulda to the cloister of Orbais in the diocese of Soissons in France. Here he applied himself with great diligence to the study of the fathers, and becoming deeply interested in the writings of Augustine and Fulgentius of Ruspe, began to teach doctrines which were held by his contemporaries to exceed in severity the predestinationism of Augustine himself. Rabanus Maurus opposed his views, and in a synod held at Mainz in 848, Gottschalk defending his doctrine of a double predestination, ad vitam et ad mortem, was condemned as heretical, and was handed over for discipline to Hincmar, bishop of Rheims. Hincmar assembled a synod at Chiersy (Carisiacum) in 849, which treated Gottschalk with great severity; on his refusal to recant he was put under the lash till blood flowed, and then thrown into prison in the cloister of Hautvillers. His book was committed to the flames, and he remained in durance for the rest of his life, a period of one-and-twenty years. During all this time his constancy remained unbroken, and he wrote his "Greater Confession," and his "Lesser Confession." He also opposed himself at this time to the views of Hincmar on the subject of the Trinity, which he branded as savouring of Sabellianism. It was a striking instance of the superstition of the age that he offered to submit his doctrine of predestination to the test of the ordeal of fire. His body was buried in unconsecrated ground, and all prayer was forbidden for the repose of his soul.—P. L.
GOTTHELF, Jeremias. See Bitzius.
GOTTI, Vincenzo Luigi, born at Bologna in 1664. He entered a dominican convent at the age of sixteen, and was sent to study theology at Salamanca. He made great progress in philosophy and divinity, and on his return to his native town was made professor in the university. An Italian Calvinistic reformer, Giacomo Picenini, having published some tractates against the Church of Rome, Gotti answered him in his work "La vera Chiesa di Cristo dimonstrata," through which he acquired favour with Pope Benedict XIII., who created him cardinal in 1728. His numerous works long enjoyed great popularity among catholic divines. He died at Rome in 1719.—A. S., O.
* GOTTSCHALL, Rudolf, a German poet, was born at Breslau, September 30, 1823, and studied law at Königsberg, Breslau, and Berlin, but soon abandoned it for a literary career. He wrote dramas—"Robespierre," "Schill," "Lambertine von Méricourt," &c., and lyrical and historical poems, &c., chiefly on political subjects. He was an active member of the German democratic party. He now lives at Breslau.—K. E.
GOTTSCHED, Johann Christoph, a distinguished German writer and critic, was born at Judithenkirch, near Königsberg, February 2, 1700. After being carefully educated by his father, a clergyman, he studied at Königsberg, and in 1724, in order to escape being enlisted in the Prussian army, he fled to Leipsic, where he began lecturing, and in 1730 obtained the chair of philosophy and poetry. He was a man of a sober, pedantic mind, vain and pretending, and entirely destitute of imaginative and creative power. Much abuse and ridicule has been heaped upon him on that account. Nevertheless he did great service to German literature by purging it of the fustian and licentiousness of the second Silesian school, and leading it back to the study of ancient and French models. He banished the degenerate clown from the German stage, introduced the legitimate drama, and by his controversy with the Swiss school of poets infused fresh and vigorous life into the stagnant literature of his time. He edited several influential magazines after the English model, particularly Die vernünftigen Tadlerinnen, and published various handbooks of poetry, eloquence, &c., which were deservedly popular. His materials for a history of the German stage are not yet superseded. His original poetry, however, especially his "Dying Cato," is extremely jejune. Gottsched died December 12, 1766.—(See Life by Danzel, 1848.)—K. E.
GOTTSCHED, Luise Adelgunde Victoria, whose maiden name was Culmus, was born 11th April, 1713, at Dantzic, was married to Professor Gottsched in 1735, and died at Leipsic, 26th June, 1762. Possessed of a cultivated taste, a masculine understanding, and good scholarship, she was eminently qualified to assist her husband in his literary labours, but at the same time neglected none of the more unambitious duties of a wife. She composed and translated tragedies and comedies. Her interesting correspondence was published after her death in 3 vols.—K. E.
GOUAN, Antoine, a French botanist, was born at Montpellier on 15th December, 1733, and died there on 21st December, 1821. He became doctor of medicine at nineteen, and afterwards gave himself entirely up to botany. His first work was a description of the plants in the botanic garden at Montpellier, in which he arranged the plants according to the Linnæan system. He was appointed professor of botany and materia medica at Montpellier. He made many excursions to the Pyrenees, and published the results of his labours in his "Illustrationes et Observationes Botanicæ." At the age of eighty he became completely blind. A genus of plants has been called Gouania after him. He published "An account of the Linnæan system;" "Herborizations in the vicinity of Montpellier;" "A Discourse on the movement of the sap in plants," &c.—J. H. B.
GOUDOULI or GOUDELIN, Pierre, a celebrated Gascon poet, born at Toulouse in 1579. He was educated for the law, and became an advocate; but instead of pleading he made verses, and soon wasted his little patrimony. Through the influence of powerful friends, he was fortunate in obtaining a pension of three hundred livres per annum, which was continued till his death in 1649. His bust was placed in the town-hall of Toulouse. His poems, written in the peculiar langue d'Oc, consist of songs, ballads, and elegies, and are much esteemed by his countrymen.—G. BL.
GOUFFÉ, Armand, born at Paris in 1775; died in 1845; was educated at the college d'Harcourt, and early placed in the office of the minister of finance. He retired from public life in 1827, and resided with a married daughter at Beaune. Gouffé was greatly admired for his bacchanalian songs, although he himself was of health too weak to indulge in wine, and although his own manners were said to have been at all times forbiddingly grave. Some of his songs were very generally ascribed to Beranger. He produced several operas and vaudevilles. His songs do not appear to have been separately published, but are found in almost every popular song-book.—J. A., D.
GOUFFIER, M. G. A. L. See Choiseul.
GOUGE, Thomas, a nonconformist divine, was born at Bow, near Stratford, on the 19th of September, 1605, son of Dr. William Gouge. He was educated at Eton, and in his twenty-first year was elected to King's college, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow. Having exchanged his fellowship for the living of Colsden, near Croydon, he was removed two or three years later to St. Sepulchre's, London, in 1638. Here he remained twenty-four years in the active exercise of a genuine philanthropy and unostentatious piety. His donations were as liberal and kind as his spiritual counsels. To induce the ignorant poor to come to his daily catechisings in the church, he distributed money among them once a week; and in order to rescue them from idleness as well as poverty, he set them at work at his own cost, buying hemp and flax for them to spin, and selling the manufactured produce, but not without loss to himself. He met the act of uniformity by quietly resigning his living with the modest observation, that "there was no need of him in London, where there were so many worthy ministers; he might do as much good in another way which could give no offence." Possessing some property, he was able not only to relieve fellow-sufferers among the clergy who had not conformed, but set himself to work at the important task of evangelizing Wales, then in a
